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COMPLETE 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

WITH 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION 



MARY Ft^ HYDE 

AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF LESSONS IN ENGLISH 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 

D. C. HEATH & CO, PUBLISHERS 

1902 



THE "-l«RA»Y 0F 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Reccive^ 


APR. 


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Copyright, 1900 and 1902 
By MARY F. HYDE 



ALL RIGHTS RESKRVED 



■■■■■•" "f"' 



^t - PREFACE 

: This book is designed for the higher grades in grammar 
^>^ vschools, and for those classes in high schools, academies, 
~ i-'^^and ungraded schools that require a brief, practical, pro- 
S**-'^ - gressive course in English grammar. 

The aim of the work is to give the pupil a mastery of the 
fundamental facts of English grammar, and to lead him to 
use that knowledge in the interpretation of literature and 
in the expression of his own thought. 

The instruction has been made concrete by the use of 
illustrative examples. These examples have been selected 
with great care from the works of the best writers, and 
they not only serve to make clear the grammatical points 
under consideration, but also aid in the formation of the 
pupil's literary taste, and help him to see that the laws of 
language are derived from the usage of the best writers 
and speakers. 

Abundant and varied exercises for the application of the 
principles presented are given throughout the book. The 
pupil is required to show his understanding of the subject 
by his ability to give original illustrations of the facts 
studied, as well as to point out and explain the various 
forms and constructions found in sentences selected from 
literature. 



iv PREFACE 

The selection and arrangement of topics is adapted to 
give the pupil a clear and comprehensive view of the sub- 
ject. Part First treats of the Sentence and the Parts of 
Speech, and lays the foundation for the pupil's mastery 
of the sentence by emphasizing the fact that it is not the 
form, but the function, of a word in a sentence that 
determines the class to which it belongs. 

Part Second takes up the subdivisions of the Parts of 
Speech and Inflection. The chief emphasis is placed upon 
the main facts, but the attention of the pupil is also directed 
to such special forms and uses of words as he will be most 
likely to meet in his reading. Special training is given 
upon words and forms commonly misused. 

Part Third treats of Syntax. It gives the leading con- 
structions of words in the English sentence, with numerous 
illustrations from literature. 

Part Fourth treats of the Structure and Analysis of sen- 
tences. It provides for a careful study of clauses in con- 
nection with the complex sentence, and contains clear and 
concise models for oral and written analysis and a great 
abundance of carefully selected matter for illustration and 
practice. 

Part Fifth relates to Composition. It gives training upon 
the paragraph, exercises in narration and description, and 
a special study of letter- writing and related subjects. 

My cordial thanks are returned to all who, by criticism 
or suggestion, have aided in the preparation of this book. 

M. F. H. 



CONTENTS 



PART FIRST 

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Sentence i 

II. Subject and Predicate ....... 3 

III. Modified Subject and Predicate 4 

IV. Order of Subject and Predicate ..... 5 
V. Nouns 9 

VI. Pronouns . . . . . . . . .10 

VII. Adjectives 12 

VIII. Verbs 14 

IX. Adverbs 16 

X. Prepositions . . . . . . . . ■ 17 

XI. Conjunctions 20 

XII. Interjections ......... 22 

XIII. Review of the Parts of Speech 23 

XIV. Phrases 27 

XV. Clauses 27 

PART SECOND 

Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech and Inflection 

XVI. Classes of Nouns 29 

XVII. Inflection of Nouns — Number 32 

XVIII. Irregular Plurals of Nouns ...... 36 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGB 

XIX. Plurals of Compounds 39 

XX. Nouns with Foreign Plurals 41 

XXI. Inflection of Nouns — Gender ..... 42 

XXII. Inflection of Nouns — Case 45 

XXIII. Possessive Case 48 

XXIV. Possessive Case of Compounds ..... 50 
XXV. Substitute for the Possessive Inflection ... 52 

XXVI. How to Parse Nouns 53 

XXVII. Review of Nouns 55 

XXVIII. Classes of Pronouns — Personal Pronouns ... 57 

XXIX. Compound Personal Pronouns ..... 62 

XXX. Classes of Pronouns — Adjective Pronouns ... 64 

XXXI. Classes of Pronouns — Relative Pronouns ... 66 

XXXII. Use of Relative Pronouns 68 

XXXIII. Relative Clauses 76 

XXXIV. Classes of Pronouns — Interrogative Pronouns . 78 
XXXV. How to Parse Pronouns 81 

XXXVI. Review of Pronouns 84 

XXXVII. Classes of Adjectives 85 

XXXVIII. Articles 88 

XXXIX. Comparison of Adjectives ...... 92 

XL. How to Parse Adjectives 97 

XLI. Choice of Adjectives 99 

XLII. Review of Adjectives ....... loi 

XLIII. Classes of Verbs 103 

XLIV. Verbs of Incomplete Predication 105 

XLV. Active and Passive Voice 107 

XLVI. Mode 109 

XLVII. The Infinitive ........ 112 

XLVIII. The Participle 115 

XLIX. Tense 118 



CONTENTS 



Vll 



CHAPTER PAGE 

L. Person and Number 121 

LI. Forms of Verbs ........ 123 

LI I. Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . .127 

LIII. Auxiliary Verbs {Continued) 131 

LIV. Auxiliary Verbs {Continued') ..... 133 

LV. Auxiliary Verbs {Continued) 138 

LVI. Conjugation of the Verb Z?rz7/^ 142 

LVII. Directions for Parsing Verbs, Infinitives, and Participles 147 

LVIII. Correct Use of Verbs ....... 153 

LIX. Review of Verbs 157 

LX. Classes of Adverbs . . . . . . . 159 

LXI. Comparison of Adverbs 162 

LXII. How to Parse Adverbs 163 

LXIII. Adverbs distinguished from Adjectives . . . .165 

LXIV. Classes of Phrases 167 

LXV. Prepositions 171 

LXVI. Classes of Conjunctions 174 

LXVII. How to Parse Conjunctions 177 

LXVIII. Interjections 180 



PART THIRD 

Syntax 

LXIX. ConstRiction of Nouns ....... i8r 

LXX. Construction of Pronouns 193 

LXXI. Construction of Adjectives 199 

LXXII. Construction of Verbs 203 

LXXIII. Construction of Infinitives 207 

LXXIV. Construction of Participles 210 

LXXV. Construction of Adverbs 212 

LXXVI. Construction of Prepositions 213 



CONTENTS 



LXXVII. Construction of Conjunctions 
LXXVIII. Varied Uses of Words 
LXXIX. Selections for Parsing 



217 
218 
220 



LXXX. 



LXXXI. 



PART FOURTH 

Structure and Analysis of Sentences 

Structure of the Sentence ...... 222 

I. Elements of a Sentence .... 222 

II. Structure of Elements ..... 223 

III. Classes of Sentences 225 

The Simple Sentence ...... 227 

I. The Subject 227 

II. Modifiers of the Subject . . . . 227 

III. The Predicate 228 

IV. Modifiers of the Predicate .... 229 
V. Analysis of Simple Sentences . . . 230 

LXXXII. The Complex Sentence ...... 236 

I. Noun Clauses 237 

II. Adjective Clauses ...... 240 

III. Adverbial Clauses 241 

IV. Analysis of Complex Sentences . . . 246 

The Compound Sentence 252 

Selections for Analysis 255 



LXXXI II. 
LXXXIV. 



PART FIFTH 
Composition 

LXXXV. The Paragraph 259 

LXXX VI. Study of a Selection .• 263 

LXXXVII. Study of a Description ^ , , . . . . 267 



CONTENTS 



IX 



CHAPTER PAGE 

LXXXVIII. Oral Composition ....... 269 

LXXXIX. Exercises in Narration and Description . . . 270 

XC. Study of a Description 272 

XCI. Letter-writing 276 

XCII. Business Forms 296 

XCIII. Social Forms 304 

APPENDIX 

I. The English Language ...... 307 

IL Rules for the Use of Capital Letters . . . -313 

Rules for the Use of Marks of Punctuation . .314 

III. List of Abbreviations 319 

Index - 321 



Part First 

THE SENTENCE AND THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



CHAPTER I 
THE SENTENCE 

A sentence is the expression of a complete thought in 

words ; as, — 

1, The fire- burns brightly. 

2. The sky is clear. 

A sentence may — 

(i) State or declare something; as, The leaves are falling. 

(2) Express a command or an entreaty ; as, Look at the 
leaves. 

(3) Ask a question; as, What makes the leaves fall f 

(4) Express sudden or strong feeling ; as. How silently 
the leaves fall ! 

A sentence that states or declares something is a declarative 
sentence. 

A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is an 
imperative sentence. 



2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A sentence that asks a question is an interrogative sentence. 
A sentence that expresses sudden or strong feeling is an 
exclamatory sentence. 

EXERCISE 1 

Fn each of the fol/ozving examples, tell for %vhat the sen- 
tence IS used and what kind of sentence it is : — 

1. Nearly all the night-birds fly on wings that make no noise. 

2. Every day is the best day of the year. 

3. How the early settlers prized the apple ! 

4. A friendly eye could never see such faults. 

5. Many flowers close their petals during rain. 

6. The house was built of stone. 

7. We heard the distant roar of the surf. 

8. How beautiful is the rain ! 

9. Night is the time for rest. 

10. How many persons entered the room? 

11. We could hear the chattering cry of the king-fisher. 

12. What an admirable piece of work this is! 

13. On the cross beam under the Old South bell 
The nest of a pigeon is builded well. 

14. A tear stood in his bright blue eye. 

15. I had three fine rosy-cheeked schoolboys for my fellow- 
passengers. 

16. Beware of entrance to a quarrel. 

17. Let us do right to all men. 

18. Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. 

19. Few know the use of life before 'tis past. 

20. The troops were concealed by a thick wood. 

21. The fisheries are the chief support of Yarmouth. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 



EXERCISE 2 



Select from your Reader ( I ) three declarative sentences ; 
(2) three imperative sentences ; (3) three interrogative sen- 
tences ; (4) three exclamatory sentences. 

CHAPTER II 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

In each of the following sentences, tell (i) what the asser- 
tion is about; (2) what is said or asserted about the thing 
named : — 

1. Birds fly. 3. Rain falls. 

2. Fishes swim, 4. Water evaporates. 

Every sentence consists of two parts. One part names 
that about which something is said, and is called the subject ; 
the other part tells what is said or asserted about the thing 
named by the subject, and is called the predicate. 

The subject of a sentence names that about which something 
is asserted. 

The predicate of a sentence tells what is asserted about the 
person or thing named by the subject. 

EXERCISE 3 

State the subject and the predicate in each of the folloiving 
sentences, giving in each case a reason for your statemejit : — 

1. Plants grow. 4. Leaves fall. 7. Parrots talk. 

2. Animals move. 5. Rivers flow. 8. Quails whistle. 

3. Men think. 6. Ice melts. 9. Thrushes sing. 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER III 

MODIFIED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

The subject and the predicate may each be expressed 
by a single word, or by two or more words; as, — 

1. Birds fly. 

2. Some birds fly swiftly. 

In the second sentence above, the word some limits the 
meaning of the word birds, by showing that not all birds are 
meant. The word siviftly adds to the meaning of the word 
fiy, by showing the manner of flight. 

When a word limits the application or adds to the meaning 
of another word in this manner, it is said to modify that 
word, and is called a modifier ; as, tJiis moment, kind words, 
speak softly, step quickly. 

The subject without modifiers is the grammatical or simple 
subject ; as. Leaves fall. 

The grammatical subject with its modifiers is the logical 
or complete subject ; as. The dead leaves fall. 

The predicate without modifiers is the grammatical or simple 
predicate ; as. Time Jiies. 

The grammatical predicate with its modifiers is the logical 
or complete predicate ; as, Time flies szviftly. 

EXERCISE 4 
Name the complete subject and the complete predicate, in 
each of the following sentences : — 

1. Language is the highest mode of expression. 

2. The first spring wild-flowers yield no honey. 



ORDER OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 5 

3. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 

4. The palm tree is found in every country from the Tigris to 
the Atlantic. 

5. The blue smoke widened slowly upward through the quiet 
August atmosphere. 

6. This wonderful tree stood in the centre of an ancient wood. 

7. The other colonies were not slow in acting. 

8. Two important steps had now to be taken at once. 

9. A merciful man considers his beast. 

10. The good old year is with the past. 

11. All plants of the same kind need the same sort of food. 

12. The summer breezes go Hghtly by. 

13. Every individual has a place to fill in the world. 

14. A wise son heareth his father's instruction. 



CHAPTER IV 

ORDER OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

I. IN DECLARATIVE SENTENCES 

The subject of a declarative sentence is usually placed 
before the predicate. This order of parts is called the 
usual order ; as, — 

The well-curb had a Chinese roof. 

But sometimes, especially in poetry, this order is trans- 
posed or inverted, and the subject is placed after the 
predicate ; as, — 

Up springs the lark. 

Sweet is the breath of morn. 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE 5 

Change the following sentences from the transposed order 
to the usual order, and name the complete subject and the 
complete predicate in each : — 

1. Blessed are the pure in heart. 

2. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

3. On their right was a steep hill. 

4. Into the valley of death 

Rode the six hundred. 

5. At the head of the bay is the town. 

6. Here will we build our habitations. 

7. Behind him came a throng of officers. 

8. Up flew the windows all. 

II. IN IMPERATIVE SENTENCES 
The subject of an imperative sentence is thoti, ye, or 
you. It is seldom expressed ; thus, — 

Come into the garden (= [You] come into the garden). 

When the subject is expressed, it is usually placed after 

the verb ; as, — 

Praise ye the Lord. 

In familiar language, the subject sometimes comes before 
the verb ; as, — 

You stand here. You keep still. 

EXERCISE 6 

Copy the following sentences, supplying the subjects that 
are understood and enclosing thetn in brackets : — 

1. Listen to this account of the fire. 

2. Fling wide the gates. 



ORDER OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 7 

3. Throw part of the cargo overboard. 

4. Speak gently to the erring. 

5. Cleanse thou me from secret faults, 

6. Be not weary in well doing. 

7. Rejoice in the prosperity of others. 

8. Follow the directions carefully. 

III. IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES 

The subject of an interrogative sentence is usually placed 
after the predicate, or after the first word of the predi- 
cate ; as, — 

Has the sun spots? Does the sun shine? 

When an interrogative word is used as the subject, or as 
a modifier of the subject, the subject and predicate are in 
the. direct order ; as, — 

Who comes here ? Which side won? 

EXERCISE 7 

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

1. Why does the earth become cooler after sunset? 

2. Why is it sometimes foggy in the morning? 

3. What causes the fog to disappear? 

4. What wind is accompanied by a clear sky? 

5. Did you ever see a cloudless sky? 

IV. IN EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES 

Most exclamatory sentences begin with Jww or what, and 
the subject and predicate are often transposed ; as, — 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

How beautiful is night ! 

What an excellent likeness this is ! 

Sometimes, however, a declarative, imperative, or interrog- 
ative sentence is written or printed with the exclamation 
point at its close, to give greater emphasis to the thought. 
It is then called an exclamatory sentence ; as, — 

The war is actually begun ! 

Give me liberty or give me death ! 

Who can foretell the result ! 



EXERCISE 8 

In the following examples, (i) tell the kind of each sen- 
tence ; (2) name its subject atid its predicate. Give a reason 
for yoiLr statements : — 

1. How excellent is thy loving-kindness ! 

2. What a deep-rooted plant it was ! 

3. How wonderful is sleep ! 

4. What a crisis had now arrived ! 

5. Here we are at last ! 

6. How lightly past hardship sits upon us ! 

7. What real service to others did you render yesterday? 

8. Consider the liHes of the field. 

9. Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh. 

10. How blessings brighten as they take their flight ! 

11. Kind hearts are more than coronets. 

12. Truth seeks open deahng. 

13. A merry heart maketh a cheerful countenance. 

14. Make yourself necessary to somebody. 



NOUNS 9 

CHAPTER V 

NOUNS 

Which words in the following sentences are used as 

names ? 

1. Benjamin Franklin discovered electricity. 

2. A certain man planted a vineyard. 

3. The shadows dance upon the wall. 

A word used as a name is a noun. A noun may be 
the name of — 

(i) A person; as, Homer was a great poet. 

(2) A place; as, Cairo is the capital of Egypt. 

(3) A thing we can see, feel, hear, smell, or touch; as, 
{a) The stars are bright, {b) Ice is cold, {c) The bluebird 
sings. ((/) Violets are sweet. 

(4) Something that we can think of but cannot perceive 
by the senses ; as, {a) Kindness wins friends, {b) Wis- 
dom is better than strength. 

(5) An action; as, Rowing expands the chest. 
A noun is a word used as a name. 

EXERCISE 9 

In each of the following examples, ( i ) tell whether the sen- 
tence is declarative, imperative, interrogative, or exclamatory ; 
(2) point out the nonns in it, and tell what each names : — 

1. He goes on Sunday to the church 

And sits among his boys. 

2. How quietly the child sleeps ! 



lO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. A large island covered with palms divides the Nile into two 
branches. 

4. His door was always open to the wayfarer. 

5. Hear me with patience. 

6. From what port did you sail ? 

7. He came early in the spring to the settlement of New 
Plymouth. 

8. The breeze comes whispering in our ear, 
That dandelions are blossoming near, 

That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing, 
That the river is bluer than the sky. 
That the robin is plastering his house hard by; 
And if the breeze kept the good news back. 
For other couriers we should not lack. 

EXERCISE 10 

Write (i) two sentences, each containing the name of a 
person; (2) two sentences, each containing the Jtame of 
a place ; (3) two sentences, each containing the name of a 
thing perceived by the senses ; (4) tzvo sentences, each contain- 
ing the name of a qtiality ; ( 5 ) two sentences, each contaifiing 
the name of a feeling. Underline the nouns in the sentetices 
writteft. 

CHAPTER VI 

PRONOUNS 

For v^^hat are the italicized w^ords used in the following 

sentences ? 

I. / met a little cottage girl, 

She was eight years old, she said. 



PRONOUNS II 

2. ''Sisters and brothers, little maid, 
How many may you be ? " 

3. " How many ? Seven in all," she said, 
And wondering looked at me. 

A vvord used for a noun is a pronoun. By the use of 
the pronoun, we can avoid the repetition of a noun, and 
designate a person or thing without naming it. A pronoun 
may designate — 

(i) The speaker or the speaker and others; as, /, my, 
me, we, our, us. 

(2) The person or persons addressed ; as, thoti, thy, thee, 
ye, your, you. 

(3) A person or thing, or two or more persons or things, 
that have been previously mentioned; as, he, his, him, she, 
her, hers, it, its, they, their, them. 

A pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

EXERCISE 11 

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, and state 
for what each is used: — 

1. Train up a child in the way he should go. 

2. Nearly all the night insects are comparatively noiseless in their 
flight. 

3. The books remain where you left them. 

4. When I turned again to look for the bird, I could not see it. 

5. Crinkle-root is spicy, but you must partake of it delicately, or 
it will bite your tongue. 

6. Trust men and they will be true to you ; treat them greatly 
and they will show themselves great. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

7. She folded her arms beneath her cloak. 

8. As the route of the friends lay in the same direction, they 
agreed to make the rest of their journey together. 

9. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O'er the grave where our hero we buried. 

10. A belted kingfisher suddenly appeared in the air just in 
front of me, where he hovered for a moment as if doubtful whether 
to fly over us and go up the river or to turn about and retreat 
before us. 

EXERCISE 12 

Write (i) two sejitences, each containing a pronoim tcsed 
to designate the speaker ; (2) tzvo sentences, each contaift- 
ing a pronoun tised to designate a person addressed ; (3) 
three sentences, each containing a pronoun nsed for the 
name of a person or thing spoken of 



CHAPTER VII 

ADJECTIVES 

Find in the following sentences words used with nouns 
to describe or to point out the things named : — 

1. A tall shrub grows by the brook. 

2. The plant has yellow blossoms. 

3. These flowers appear in autumn. 

In the examples above, the word tall describes the shrub 
named, in regard to height ; the word yelloiv tells the color 
of the blossoms ; the limits the application of the noun plant 
to a particular plant ; tJiese points out the flowers referred to. 



ADJECTIVES 13 

A word used to modify the meaning of a noun or pro- 
noun is an adjective. An adjective may show — 

(i) What kind of thing is named; as, large city, bold 
warrior, merry heart. 

(2) How many things are mentioned ; as, ten command- 
ments, twelve months, some lakes, many books. 

(3) How much of a quantity is referred to ; as, little rain, 
less time. 

(4) What thing is spoken of ; as, tJds house, those trees, 
yonder cottage. 

An adjective is a word used to modify the meaning of a 
noun or pronoun. 

EXERCISE 13 

Name the adjectives in the following sentences, state the 
2ise of each adjective, and tell what it modifies : — 

1. Two ships were anchored in the bay. 

2. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax. 

3. A wise son maketh a glad father. 

4. Brave hearts were ready for bold deeds, 

5. These people are honest, kind-hearted, and industrious. 

6. The statue is nearly seven feet in height. 

7. The wax candles were now lighted, and showed a handsome 
room, well provided with rich furniture. 

8. The doe was a beauty, with slender limbs, not too heavy 
flanks, round body, and aristocratic head, with small ears, and 
luminous, intelligent, affectionate eyes. 

9. His withered cheek and tresses gray. 
Seemed to have known a better day. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER VIII 

VERBS 

In the following sentences point out the words that tell 
or assert something of the thing named : — ■ 

1. Birds sing. 

2. The wind blows. 

3. He is a soldier. 

A word that asserts is a verb. A verb may assert — 
(i) Action; as, Children //(7j. 

(2) Being or existence ; as, God is. 

(3) State or condition ; as, (a) The picture hangs on 
the wall, {b) The infant sleeps. 

A verb is a word that asserts. 

Some verbs consist of more than one word ; as, — 

A ball 7£//// ro//. The book /ms been found. 

Such compound forms are sometimes called verb-phrases.^ 
The word that denotes the person or thing about which 
the assertion is made is called the subject of the verb ; as, — 

The gardener pruned the trees. 

EXERCISE 14 
Point out the verbs in the folloiving sentences, state what 
each tells, and name its subject : — 

1. The song-birds nearly all build low. 

2. The weasel is an enemy of the birds. 

1 See page 27. 



VERBS 15 

3. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

4. He springs from his hammock, he flies to the deck. 

5. The pigeons fly in great clouds from village to village. 

6. The kettle sings, the cat in chorus purrs. 

7. They robbed the wild bees of their honey, and chased the 
deer over the hills. 

8. The horses neighed, and the oxen lowed. 

9. She pointed to the web of beautifully woven cloth in the 
loom. 

10. A fire blazed brightly on the hearth. 

11. The shadows dance upon the wall. 

12. The troops marched steadily on. 

13. When breezes are soft apd skies are fair, 
I steal an hour from study and care. 

14. Thus the night passed. The moon went down ; the stars 
grew pale ; the cold day broke ; the sun rose. 

EXERCISE 15 

Write sentences containing the following words used {\) as 
nouns; (2) as verbs: — 

bark walk fear sail salt 

rock look dream water hope 

EXERCISE 16 

Write sentences containing the following ivords used as 
the subjects of verbs. Underline the verbs : — 



moon 


iron 


soldier 


singer 


wind 


courage 


grocer 


river 


organ 


bell 



|6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER IX 

ADVERBS 

In the following sentences point out the words that show 
hoiv, when, or where actions were performed : — 

1. The boat moves slowly. 

2. He always spoke the truth. 

3. The child stood here. 

Give the verb in each sentence, and tell what word 
modifies its meaning. 

A word that modifies the meaning of a verb is an adverb. 
Sometimes an adverb is used to modify the meaning of 
an adjective; as, — 

It is very cold. 

The sleeve is too short. 

Sometimes an adverb is used to modify the meaning of 
another adverb ; as, — 

The boat moves very slowly. 
Do not walk so fast. 

An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb. 

EXERCISE 17 

Mention the adverbs in the follozving sejitences, and tell 
what each modifies : — 

1. The bell rang sharply. 

2. She turned, and looked back. 



ADVERBS 17 

3. How hard a lesson it is to wait ! 

4. How silently the snow falls ! 

5. The common wild birds of the woods were everywhere. 

6. Faster and faster we sped. 

7. The shower soon passed. 

8. The statement is perfectly correct. 

9. But we steadfastly gazed on the face that was dead, 
And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 

ID. Catbirds differ greatly in vocal talent. 

EXERCISE 18 

Write (i) five sentences, each containing an adverb modi- 
fying a verb ; (2) three sentences, each containing an adverb 
modifying an adjective ; (3) two sentences, each containing 
an adverb modifying an adverb. 

CHAPTER X 

PREPOSITIONS 

In the following sentences point out the words that join 
nouns or pronouns to other words : — 

1. They sailed up the river. 

2. No one spoke to him. 

3. The clock in the steeple struck three. 

4. She is fond of music. 

A word used with a noun or pronoun to show its relation to 
some other word in the sentence is called a preposition; as, ~- 

The leaves fell to the ground. 



l8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The noun or pronoun used with a preposition in this 
manner is called its object. A preposition is usually placed 
before its object, but sometimes it follows it; as, — 
The boat is on the shore. What are you looking at? 

A preposition usually joins a noun or pronoun to — 

(i) A verb; as, He lived by the river. 

(2) An adjective; as. They are ready for battle. 

(3) A noun ; as. It is a package of letters. 

A preposition is a word used with a noun or pronoun to 
show its relation to some other word in the sentence. 

EXERCISE 19 

Mention the prepositions in the following sentences, tell 
between what words each shows a relation, and name its 
object : — 

1. A fair little girl sat under a tree. 

2. The dining table stood in the centre of the room. 

3. The boy was pleased at the prospect of taking a long journey. 

4. At midnight I was aroused by the tramp of horses' hoofs 
in the yard. 

5. The habits of our American cuckoo are extremely interesting. 

6. Into the street the Piper stept. 

7. They were eager for the contest. 

8. Every day the starving poor 
Crowded around Bishop Hatto's door. 

9. Like the leaves of the forest, when summer is green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen. 

10. I see the lights of the village 

Gleam through the rain and the mist. 



PREPOSITIONS 19 

EXERCISE 20 

Tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences 
are adverbs or prepositions, giving reasons in each case : — 

1. Is your employer within? 

2. The work mil be done within a week. 

3. It roUed down the hill. 

4. Slowly and sadly we laid him dow7i. 

5. A voice replied far up the height. 

6. Lift up thine eyes unto the hills. 

7. They passed by. 

8. He sat by the well. 

9. Your hat is behind the door. 

10. Do not lag behi7id. 

11. A beautiful picture hung above the altar. 

12. The eagle soars above. 

13. The multitude went before. 

14. The cat lay before the fire. 

15. By thirty hills I hurry down, 

Or sHp between the ridges, 
By twenty thorps, a little town, 
And half a hundred bridges. 

EXERCISE 21 

(i) Write five sentejices, each containing a preposition ex- 
pressing a relation between a verb and a nonn. 

(2) Write five sentences, each containijig a preposition ex- 
pressing a relation between two nonns. 

(3) Write three sentences, each containing a preposition 
expressing a relation between an adjective and a noun. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER XI 

CONJUNCTIONS 

In the following examples, find (i) short sentences joined 
by the itaHcized words ; (2) similar words or groups of words 
that are so joined : — 

1. The walls are high, and the shores are steep. 

2. They came, but they did not stay. 

3. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

4. We have been friends together. 

In sunshine and in shade. 

A word that connects sentences or similar parts of the 
same sentence is a conjunction. A conjunction may con- 
nect — 

( 1 ) Two sentences ; as, Be Just, and fear not. 

(2) Two phrases^; as, Through days of soi-roiv and of 
mirth. 

(3) Two words ; as, {a) Time and tide wait for no man 
(nouns). ib) Her voice was low and siveet (adjectives). 
Sink or stvim (verbs), {c) Look before and beJiind (adverbs). 

A conjunciion is a word that connects sentences, or similar 
parts of the same sentence. 

EXERCISE 22 

Point out the conjunctions in the followhig sentences, and 
tell what they connect: — 

1. The floods came, and the winds blew. 

2. Freely we serve, because we freely love. 

^ See page 27. 



CONJUNCTIONS 21 

3. He reached the well, but nobody was there. 

4. The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 

And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

5. She must weep, or she will die. 

6. The flames danced and capered in the poUshed grate. 

7. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my heart 
and my hand to this vote. 

8. Three years she grew in sun and shower. 

9. The waves beside them danced ; but they 

Outdid the sparkling waves in glee. 

10. Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy. 

EXERCISE 23 

Show which of the italicized zvords in the following sen- 
tences are prepositions, and zvhich are conjunctions : — 

1. They came, I'ut they did not remain. 

2. He cares for nothing dut money. 

3. All the family were present, except one son. 

4. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 

5. 1 have not heard from them since yesterday. 

6. Since you are here, you might remain. 

7. The children ran after the procession. 

8. He came after the exercises had closed. 

9. The building will be completed before the leaves fall. 

10. It stands before the fireplace. 

11. Stay here until I come. 

12. They will remain abroad tmtil November. 

13. He died for his country. 

14. Our bugles sang truce ; for the night-cloud had lowered 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



EXERCISE 24 



Write sentences containing conjnnctio7is joi7ting (i) two 
sentences; (2) two nouns; (3) two adjectives ; (4) two verbs ; 
(5) two adverbs. 

CHAPTER XII 

INTERJECTIONS 

What words in the following sentences form no part of 
either subject or predicate? 

1. Alas ! we have delayed too long. 

2. Hark! was that a knock? 

3. Hurrah ! the day is won. 

What feeling is expressed by the use of the word alas? 
By the word hark ? By the word hurrah ? 

A word used to indicate sudden or intense feeling is 
called an interjection. Interjections may express — 

(i) Joy; as, hurrah! hnzzah ! 

(2) Pain or suffering ; as, ah ! oh ! alas ! 

(3) Surprise; as, ha! lo ! what! 

(4) Disapproval ; as, fie ! fudge ! 

(5) A desire to call attention; as, ho! hey! hark! 

etc., etc. 

An inierjeciion is a word used to indicate sudden or intense 
feeling. 

EXERCISE 25 

Point out the interjections in the following sentences, and 
tell what they express : — 



PARTS OF SPEECH 2$ 

1. Alas ! I am undone. 

2. Away ! we must not linger. 

3. Hush ! it is the dead of night. 

4. Halloo ! who stands guard here? 

5. Ah ! whence is that flame which now glares on his eye? 

6. Oh ! how many broken bonds of affection were here ! 

7. But hush ! hark ! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell. 

8. Ha! feel ye not your fingers thrill? 

9. Alas ! they all are in their graves. 

10. Oh ! the boat is safe enough. 

11. O look! the sun begins to rise. 

12. And lo ! from the assembled crowd 
There rose a shout, prolonged and loud. 

EXERCISE 26 

Write ten sentences, each containing one of the following 
words used as an interjectio7i : — 



hark 


whew 


ho 


hurrah 


hush 


fie 


pshaw 


alas 


ah 


fudge 



CHAPTER XIII 

REVIEW OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
EXERCISE 27 

Mention some of the different uses of words in a sentence. 
What do we call a word that is used as a name } A 
word used instead of a noun } A word that asserts } 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

How many classes of words are used as modifiers ? What 
are these classes called ? How does the adjective differ 
from the adverb ? 

How many kinds of connecting words have been consid- 
ered? What are they called ? In what way are prepositions 
and conjunctions alike ? How do they differ ? 

Mention a class of words not grammatically related to 
the other words in a sentence. 

How many kinds of words have been considered ? 

Words are divided into classes according to their uses in 
sentences. These different classes of words are called parts 
of speech. The parts of speech are : — 

1. The Noun. 5. The Adverb. 

2. The Pronoun. 6. The Preposition. 

3. The Adjective. 7. The Conjunction. 

4. The Verb. 8. The Interjection. 

EXERCISE 28 

Distinguish between the uses of the italicized words in 
each of the folloiving examples, and name the part of speech 
of each word: — 

1. Then rushed the steed to battle driven. The troops ap- 
peared in battle array. 

2. Farewell ! a long farewell, to all my greatness. Not a sol- 
dier discharged his farewell shot. 

3. It was over in one second. Omit the second stanza. 1 
second the motion. 

4. He is as good as he is strong. Who will show us any good? 



PARTS OF SPEECH 2$ 

5. They visited a /ar country. I^ar flashed the red artillery. 

6. This is the l>est answer that was given. 

He prayeth des^ who loveth ^es^ 
All things both great and small, 

7. The horse is a /as;f walker. The child is /asf asleep. When 
ye /asf, be not, as the hypocrites, of a sad countenance. The 
shades of night were falling /asA 

8. He is sfiVI here. Now came sti7/ evening on. There is a 
good fire, sfi// the room is cold. 



Name the part of speech of each italicized word in the fol- 
lowing sentences, giving in each case a reason for your classifi- 
cation : — 

1. His to-days are never yesterdays. 

2. The Hon shall lie down with the lamb. 

3. As I looked up, I saw the boat before me. 

4. There is a calm for those who weep. 

5. The laborer is worthy of his hire. 

6. The good south wind still blew behind. 

7. It is not finished yet. 

8. Swifdy, swiftly sailed the ship : 

Yet she sailed softly too. 

9. Ere I go, you must consent. 

10. Think, befoi-e you speak. 

11. Still waters run deep. 

12. We look before and after. 

13. The down train is late. 

14. He had experienced many ups and downs in life. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

15. Up went the steps, bang went the door, round whirled the 
wheels, and off they rattled. 

16. We talked about the trees. 

17. On right, on left, above, below, 
Sprung up at once the lurking foe. 

18. The vejj village was altered. 

19. Arise, take up thy bed, and go unto thy house. 

EXERCISE 30 

(i) Write sentences containing the following words used 
as nouns : — 

to-morrow fear paper ring America 

(2) Write sentences containing the following words used 
as verbs : — 

stand fear paper ring water 

(3) Write sentences cojitaining the following zvords nsed 
as adverbs : — 

to-morrow after before since over 

(4) Write sentences containing the following words used 
as prepositions : — 

till before after over for 

(5) Write sentences containing the following words used 
as cofijunctiojts : — 

till before after since for 

To the Teacher. — Give additional exercises, if they are needed, to impress 
the fact, that it is not the form of a word, but its use in a sentence, that 
determines what part of speech the word is. 



CLAUSES 2^ 

CHAPTER XIV 

PHRASES 

In the following examples, find combinations of words used 
like parts of speech : — 

1. The leader is a courageotis man. 

2. The leader is a man of courage. 

3. What did you see there? 

4. What did you see in that place? 

A combination of words performing a distinct office in a 
sentence, but having neither subject nor predicate, is a phrase. 

EXERCISE 31 

In the following sentences, state the use of each italicized 
phrase: — 

1. The cargo of the ship is valuable. 

2. There groups of merry children played. 

3. I stand tipon my native hills again. 

4. The road to the river is straight. 

5. The command of the general must be obeyed. 

6. Two officers of the company were killed i7i battle. 

7. The dress of the figitive betrayed him. 

8. The ships sailed down the bay. 

9. Let us go from this place. 

10. He did the work in a satisfactory manner. 

CHAPTER XV 

CLAUSES 

Tell how many assertions are made in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences, and name the subject and the predicate 
in each assertion : — 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

1. When the signal was given, the boats started. 

2. The building was condemned, because it was unsafe. 

3. I believe that he is honest. 

A combination of words performing a distinct office in a 
sentence, and having a subject and a predicate, is a clause. 

A clause that expresses the leading or principal thought of 
a sentence is an independent or principal clause; as — 

T/uy trimmed the lamps as the sun went down. 

A clause that depends upon some other part of the sentence 
for its full meaning, is a dependent or subordinate clause; as, — 

They trimmed the lamps as the sun went down. 

EXERCISE 32 

Find the principal clauses and the subordinate clauses in 
the following sentences, and tell how each subordinate 
clause is used : — 

1. You may remain where you are. 

2. Speak as you think. 

3. If our cause is just, we shall succeed. 

4. What his decision will be is uncertain. 

5. Remember what has been done for you. 

6. She hstened attentively while he was speaking. 

7. When the fire was extinguished, the crowd dispersed. 

8. He left the roorn as I entered the door. 

9. Learn from the birds what food the thickets yield. 
lo. Forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors. 



Part Second 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
AND INFLECTION 



CHAPTER XVI 

CLASSES OF NOUNS 

I. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS 

Point out in the following sentences (i) the nouns that 
name special persons or things, (2) the nouns that apply- 
to every one of a class of persons or things : — 

1. The White House is the official residencvi of the President of 
the United States. The corner-stone of the White House was laid 
by General Washington. 

2. Paris is called the finest city in the world. 

3. Longfellow is the most popular American poet. 

A name that belongs to an individual person or thing is a 
proper noun; as, Clarence, Neiv York, Thursday, Lake 
George. 

Proper nouns and words derived from them begin with 
capital letters. When a proper noun is made up of two or 
more words, each word generally begins with a capital 
letter. 

29 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A name that applies to every one of a class of persons or 
things is a common noun; as, boy, city, day, lake. 

EXERCISE 33 

( 1 ) Write sentences containing a name that applies to every 
one of a class of {a) persons ; {b) places; {c) buildings. 

(2) Write sentences containing the natne of an individual 
{a) poet ; {b) statesman; (c) city ; {d) country ; {e) lake. 

II. COLLECTIVE NOUNS 
Point out the nouns in the following sentences that name 
collections of persons or things, and tell of what each 
collection is composed : — 

1. The speaker was afraid to face the audience. 

2. The Assembly adjourned at twelve o'clock. 

3. There is no flock, however watched and tended, 

But one dead lamb is there. — Longfellow. 

4. Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love and recon- 
ciliation ? — Patrick Henry. 

A noun that in the singular number applies to a collection 
of persons or things is a collective noun ; as, family, jury, 
swarm. 

Collective nouns are usually common ; but when a collec- 
tive noun is applied to an individual body, as in the second 
example above, it is proper. 

EXERCISE 34 

Write sentences containing words used to name a col- 
lection of — 

ships soldiers sailors wolves sheep 

bees thieves buffaloes fish chickens 



CLASSES OF NOUNS 31 

III. ABSTRACT NOUNS 

Point out each word in the following examples that is the 
name of a quality or condition of a person or thing: — 

1. The length of a river. 

2. The bravery of the soldier. 

3. The growth of the plant. 

A noun that is the name of a quality, action, or condition of 
a person or thing, apart from the person or thing itself, is an 
abstract noun ; as, goodness, happiness. 

An abstract noun that is the name of an action is some- 
times called a verbal noun ; as, walking, singing. 

Abstract nouns are formed — 

(i) From adjectives; as, brigJitness from bright; honesty 
from honest ; patience from patient. 

(2) From verbs; as, invention from invent; singing ixom 
sing. 

(3) From nouns ; as childhood from child ; knavery from 



EXERCISE 35 

Point out each noun in the following sentences, and state 
the class to which it belongs : — 

1. The child's illness is of an alarming nature. 

2. Wisdom is better than strength. 

3. He has repented of his folly. 

4. The time of the singing of birds has come. 

5. His writing was illegible. 



32 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



6. Charity covereth a multitude of sins. 

7. How poor are tliey that have not patience ! 

8. How Httle they knew of the depth, and the strength, and 
the intensity of that feehng of resistance to illegal acts of power, 
which possessed the whole American people ! 

EXERCISE 36 

Write the foUozving zvords in cobmins, and opposite each 
word place the corresponding abstract nonn : — 



industrious 


weak 


bright 


warm 


honest 


temperate 


walk 


courageous 


true 


wise 


sweet 


judge 


beautiful 


just 


innocent 


proud 


conceal 


deceive 


high 


dull 


long 


please 


learn 


hard 


pure 



CHAPTER XVII 



INFLECTION OF NOUNS — NUMBER 



Some words are changed in form to denote a change in 
their meaning or their relation to the rest of the sentence ; as, 
dook, books ; boy, boy's ; you, your ; write, wrote. 

The change in the form of a word to denote a change of 
meaning or relation is called inflection. 

The inflection of a noun or pronoun is called its declen- 
sion ; the inflection of an adjective or adverb is called its 
comparison ; the inflection of a verb is called its conjugation. 



INFLECTION OF NOUNS 33 

Tell how many forms each noun in the following exam- 
ples has, and whether each form denotes one or more than 
one : — 



book 


watch 


fox 


piano 


potato 


books 


watches 


foxes 


pianos 


potatoes 



The distinction between one and more than one is called 
number. 

The form which denotes one thing is the singular number; 

as, bird, match, leaf. 

The form which denotes more than one thing is the plural 
number; as, birds, matches, leaves. 

Number Forms of Nouns 

Give the plural of each of the following nouns, and tell 
how it is formed: — 



bird 


canto 


chimney 


cuff 


boat 


piano 


day 


gulf 


trap 


solo 


key 


roof 


paper 


folio 


alley 


life 



I. Nouns regularly form the plural by adding 5 to the 
singular ; as, river, rivers ; halo, halos ; valley, valleys ; 
chief, diiefs. 

II. Nouns ending in a hissing sound like that of s, x, sh, 
ch, and z, form the plural by adding e* to the singular ; as, 
gas, gases ; tax, taxes ; thrush, thrushes ; match, matches ; 
topaz, topazes. 



34 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



EXERCISE 37 

Write the following words in columns, and opposite each 
word write its plural form : — 



battle 


tack 


marble 


bridge 


arch 


glass 


race^ 


rose 


brooch 


niche 


latch 


fish 


mesh 


prize 


hoe 


box 


larch 


lens 


ditch 


hedge 


chorus 


metal 


rush 


bush 


ice 



Which words in the list above add cs ? 

III. Most nouns ending in o add * to the singular to form 
the plural ; some add e* ; and a few add either 5 or es. 



EXERCISE 38 
Form, the plurals of the following words by addijtg 



to 



the sijigidar: — 








alto cuckoo 


halo 


oratorio 


soprano 


banjo duodecimo 


junto 


piano 


stiletto 


cameo dynamo 


memento 


portfolio 


trio 


canto embryo 


nuncio 


quarto 


two 


chrorao folio 


octavo 


solo 


tyro 



The plurals of bravo, lasso, mosquito, and motto are formed by 
adding either s or es ; as bravos"^ or bravoes ; lassos or lassoes ; 
mosquitos or mosquitoes ; mottos or mottoes. 

EXERCISE 39 

Form the plurals of these noims by adding es to the 
singular : — 

^ Words ending in silent e drop the final e when es is added. 
2 The form that is preferred is placed first. 







NUMBER 




35 


echo 


embargo 


negro 


tomato 


torpedo 


hero 


mulatto 


potato 


tornado 


veto 



The plurals of buffalo, cargo, domino, and volcano are formed by 
adding either es or s ; as, buffaloes or buffalos ; cargoes or cargos ; 
dominoes or dominos ; volcanoes or volcanos. 

EXERCISE 40 

Form, the plurals of eight nouns that may add either s or 
es, placing the preferred form first. 

Give the ending of the singular nouns in the follow- 
ing examples, and tell how their plurals are formed : — 

city story day chimney 

cities stories days chimneys 

IV. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, add * to 
the singular, to form the plural ; nouns ending in y preceded 
by a consonant, change / to ies ; as boy, boys ; chimney, 
chimneys ; city, cities; lily lilies. 

EXERCISE 41 

Write sentences containing the plurals of the folloiving 
W07'ds : — 



body 


colloquy ^ 


berry 


jury 


alley 


copy 


soliloquy 


ferry 


journey 


pulley 


daisy 


vanity 


Uly 


mystery 


duty 


fly 


buoy 


quay 


donkey 


Marcy ^ 



1 Qu stands for kw, hence the y of colloquy and soliloquy is really not preceded 
by a vowel sound. 

2 Many proper names do not follow the rule, but simply add s; as, Henrys, 
Stacys. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

How are the singular nouns in the following examples 
changed to make each mean more than one ? — 
proof gulf fife 

proofs gulfs fifes 

V. Most nouns ending in f or fe form the plural by adding a 

to the singular ; as, roof, roofs ; safe, safes. 

The following nouns change / or fe to ves : — 

beef knife self thief 

calf leaf sheaf wharf ^ 

elf life shelf wife 

half loaf staffs wolf 

EXERCISE 42 
Make {i) a list of ten notins, ending in f or fe, tJiat form 
their phirals by the addition of s ; and (2) a list of teti other 
nouns that form their phirals in ves. 

CHAPTER XVni 

IRREGULAR PLURALS OF NOUNS 

Tell how the plurals below are formed: — 

man foot mouse ox child 

men feet mice oxen children 

VI. Some nouns form the plural by changing the vowel of 
the singular ; as, ma^z, meti ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth ; foot, 
feet ; mojise, mice (also changes s to c\ 

1 Staff (a stick or pole^, staves or staffs ; staff (a body of officers) , staffs. 

2 Wharf, wharves or wharfs. 



NUMBER 37 

In a few nouns the plural ends in en^; as ox, oxen ; brother, 
brethren ; child, children. 

Give the number of each italicized noun in the following 
examples, and notice its form : — 

1. A sheep before her shearers is dumb. 

2. The sheep are feeding in the pasture. 

VII. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers ; as, 

deer, sheep, swine. 

Other nouns which have the same form in both numbers 
are brace, dosen, head, pair, and yoke when used after numer- 
als, and head, sail, canno7i, fish, troitt, and heathen, when used 
in a special or a collective sense. 

VIII. Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, — 

aborigines clothes scissors tidings trousers 
assets dregs thanks tongs vitals 

IX. Some nouns plural in form are now generally used as 
singulars ; as, — 

amends economics measles physics 

ethics mathematics news politics 

X. Some no ms ending in 5 or es are not plurals ; as, alvis, 
eaves, riches. 



1 The old plural kine ( = kyen) is still used in poetry, and such forms as eyen 
(eyes), hosen (hose), and shoon (shoes) are found in several dialects. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

XL Some nouns have two plural forms differing in mean- 
ing ; as : — 

brother, brothers (by blood) ; brethren (by association). 

cannon, can?tons (separately) ; cannon (collectively). 

die, dies (stamps for coining) ; dice (cubes for gaming). 

fish, fishes (separately) ; fish (collectively) . 

genius, geniuses (men of genius) ; genii (spirits). 

index, indexes (tables of reference) ; indices (signs in algebra) 

penny, pe?inies (number of coins) ; pence (amount in value). 

EXERCISE 43 

Write sentences containing- the plurals of the follozving 
nouns, and tell how each plural is formed: — 



woman 


foot 


cannon 


shad 


deer 


tooth 


ox 


mouse 


fish 


genius 


sheaf 


enemy 


buoy 


crutch 


reef 


wharf 


colloquy 


envoy 
EXERCISE 44 


Ufe 


fife 



(i) Tell which of the following noiins are nsed in tin 
singular, and which in the plural. 

(2) Write sentences illustrati7ig their correct use: — 



alms 


eaves 


pohtics 


thanks 


amends 


dregs 


riches 


tidings 


aborigines 


mathematics 


scissors 


tongs 


clothes 


news 


shears 


victuak 



NUMBER 



39 



EXERCISE 45 

Make a list of the following nouns, and write opposite each 
its singular: — 



genii 


geniuses 


pence 


brethren 


indices 


beeves 


brothers 


fishes 


wharves 


pennies 


lives 


indexes 


women 


staves 


halves 


cannons 


elves 


sheaves 


dice 


dies 



CHAPTER XIX 



PLURALS OF COMPOUNDS 



Tell how each plural form below is made from the sin- 
gular : — 

spoonful brother-in-law man-servant 

spoonfuls brothers-in-law men-servants 

XII. Some compound nouns form the plural like single words, 
others make the principal word plural, and a few change both 
words; as, cupful, cupfuls ; mother-in-law, mothers-in-law; 
woman-servant, women-servants. 

EXERCISE 46 

Write the singulars of the following nouns, and tell how 
their plurals are formed : — 



Brahmans ^ 


forget-me-nots 


merchantmen 


cupfuls 


Frenchmen 


mouse-traps 


dormice 


Germans 


Normans 



1 The words Brahman, German, Alussulmatt, Ottoman, and talisman are not 
compounds of man. 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Englishmen 


grandfathers 


stepsons 


fellow-servants 


handfuls 


talismans 


fishermen 


major-generals 


tooth-brushes 


aides-de-camp 


II 

fathers-in-law 


men-of-war 


attorneys-at-law 


hangers-on 


sisters-in-law 


commanders-in-chief 


knights-errant 
III 


sons-in-law 


knights-templars 


men-servants 


women-servants 



XIII. "When a title is prefixed to a proper name, the com- 
pound may be made plural by changing either the title or the 
name ; as, the Misses Brown, the Messrs. Gray ; or the Miss 
Browns, the Mr. Grays. 

The title is always made plural when it is used with two 
or more names ; as, Messrs. Stone and Wood ; Generals Grant 
and Lee. 

XIV. Letters, figures, and signs add the apostrophe (') and 
s, to form the plural ; as. Dot the i's ; Cancel the fs ; Write 
the +'-$■ on a straight line. 



EXERCISE 47 



Write the plurals of the following compounds : — 



countryman 

horseshoe 

four-per-cent 

goose-quill 

journeyman 



maid- servant 

mother-in-law 

mouthful 

footboy 

footman 



man-trap 
toothpick 
attorney-general 
Miss Hill 
Mr. North 



NUMBER 



41 



CHAPTER XX 

NOUNS WITH FOREIGN PLURALS 

XV. Many nouns taken from foreign languages retain their 
original plurals ; as : — 



Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


alumnus 


alumni 


genus 


genera 


analysis 


analyses 


index 


indices 


animalculum 


animalcula 


larva 


larvae 


antithesis 


antitheses 


memorandum 


memoranda 


apex 


apices 


nebula 


nebulae 


axis 


axes 


parenthesis 


parentheses 


basis 


bases 


phenomenon 


phenomena 


cherub 


cherubim 


radius 


radii 


crisis 


crises 


seraph 


seraphim 


datum 


data 


stratum 


strata 


erratum 


errata 


terminus 


termini 


focus 


foci 


thesis 


theses 


formula 


formulae 


vertebra 


vertebrae 


fungus 


fungi 


■ vertex 


vertices 


genius 


genii 


vortex 


vortices 



Some foreign words which are in common use form the 
plural in the usual way, often with a difference of meaning; 
as formulas, indexes, geniuses. 



EXERCISE 48 



(i) Make a list of the foregoing singular nouns from foreig7i 
langtiages, and opposite each write from memory its plural. 
(2) Write id) five nouns that are used only in the plural ; 



42 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



(b) ttvo nouns plnral in form that are used in the singular ^ 

(c) three nouns havijig the same form in both numbers. 



CHAPTER XXI 

INFLECTION OF NOUNS — GENDER 

Which words in the following list denote males ? Which 
denote females ? 



man 

woman 



father 
mother 



host 
hostess 



man-servant 
maid-servant 



The distinction between words to denote sex is called 
gender. 

A noun that denotes a male is of the masculine gender; 
as, maji, heir. 

A noun that denotes a female is of the feminine gender; 
as, zvoman, Jicircss. 

A noun that may denote either a male or a female is generally 
said to be of the common gender^ ; as, parent, friend, robin. 

A noun that denotes a thing neither male nor female is of 
the neuter gender ; as, book, sky, joy. 

The gender of nouns is distinguished in three ways: — 

(i) By different words; as, — 

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine 

maid earl countess 

girl father mother 

sister gentleman lady 



bachelor 
boy 

brother 
buck 



doe 



hart 



roe 



1 Some grammarians do not recognize common gender. 



INFLECTION OF NOUNS 



43 



Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


husband 


wife 


ram 


ewe 


king 


queen 


sir 


madam 


monk 


nun 


son 


daughter 


lord 


lady 


stag 


hind 


nephew 


niece 


uncle 


aunt 


papa 


mamm?. 


wizard 


witch 



(2) By different endings. The chief feminine ending is 
ess. 

Some nouns form the feminine by simply adding the 
suffix ess to the masculine ; as, — 



baron 


baroness 


Jew 


Jewess 


count 


countess 


lion 


lioness 


deacon 


deaconess 


patron 


patroness 


heir 


heiress 


priest 


priestess 


host 


hostess 


shepherd 


shepherdess 



Other nouns shorten the ending of the masculine, or 
make other changes, before adding ess ; as, — 



actor 


actress 


abbot 


abbess 


benefactor 


benefactress 


duke 


duchess 


enchanter 


enchantress 


emperor 


empress 


hunter 


huntress 


governor 


governess 


preceptor 


preceptress 


marquis 


marchioness 


tiger 


tigress 


master 


mistress 


waiter 


waitress 


negro 


negress 



A few other feminine endings, such as ine, a, and trix, 
appear in words taken from foreign languages ; as, — 



44 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


hero 


heroine 


infante 


infanta 


Joseph 


Josephine 


signor 


signora 


Paul 


Pauhne 


sultan 


sultana 


Augustus 


Augusta 


administrator 


administratrix 


czar 


czarina 


executor 


executrix 


don 


donna 


testator 


testatrix 



(3) By prefixing or annexing words indicating the sex; 



Masculine 
man-servant 
men-singers 
he -goat 
cock-sparrow 
peacock 



Feminine 
maid-servant 
women-singers 
she-goat 
hen-sparrow 
peahen 



EXERCISE 49 



Make a list of all the masculine nouns mentioned in the 
foregoing lists, and opposite each write from me7nory the 
corresponding feminine noun. 



EXERCISE 50 

Point out the masculine, the fetninine, and the neuter 
nouns in the following sentences, and tell which nouns may 
denote either males or females : — 

1. We learned the ways of the fish, the birds, the bees, the 
winds, the clouds, the flowers. 

2. Night closed in, but still no guest arrived. 

3. Leaving the boatmen at the camp, I spent the greater part 
of the night in the very heart of a jungle. 



INFLECTION OF NOUNS 45 

4. Temperance and labor are the two best physicians of man. 

5. Though Grandfather was old and gray-haired, yet his heart 
leaped with joy whenever httle Alice came fluttering, like a butterfly, 
into the room. — Hawthorne. 

6. I have had playmates, I have had companions. 

— Charles Lamb. 

7. Brethren, the sower's task is done. — Bryant. 

8. I rise, my Lords, to declare my sentiments on this most 
solemn and serious subject — Burke. 

9. Little Effle shall go with me to-morrow to the green, 
And you'll be there, too, mother, to see me made the Queen, 

— Tennyson. 

10. Brothers, sisters, husbands, wives. 

Followed the Piper for their lives. — Robert Browning. 

11. The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. — byron. 

12. What would we give to our beloved ? 
The hero's heart, to be unmoved. 

The poet's star-tuned harp, to sweep. 
The patriot's voice, to teach and rouse. 
The monarch's crown, to light the brows ? — 

He giveth His beloved sleep.— e. B. Browning. 



CHAPTER XXII 

INFLECTION OF NOUNS — CASE 

Tell the subjects of the verbs in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. The boy bought a watch. 

2. An officer caught the thief. 

3. Birds build nests. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

What did the boy buy ? Whom did the officer catch ? 
What do birds build ? 

The noun or pronoun that denotes the person or thing 
receiving the action expressed by a verb is called the object 
of the verb. 

State the offices of the italicized words in the following : — 

1. We followed the shephe?-d's dog. 

2. The horse's bridle is broken. 

When a word is used to show to whom or to what some- 
thing belongs, it is said to denote possession. 

Find in the following sentences a noun used (i) as the 
subject of a verb ; (2) as the object of a verb ; (3) as the 
object of a preposition; (4) to denote possession: — 

1. The boy stood by the door, 

2. He heard his father's voice. 

3. A wave upset the boat. 

The relation which a noun or pronoun bears to some other 
word in the sentence is called case. 

A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a verb is in the 
nominative case ; as, — 

The de// rang. / hear a lark, 
A noun or pronoun used to show possession is in the possess- 
ive case ; as, — 

The c/iiVii's eyes are blue. She is my friend. 

A noun or pronoun used as the object of a verb or of a prepo- 
sition is in the objective case ; as, — 

They launched the vessel Come with me. 



INFLECTION OF NOUNS 47 

How many case forms have the nouns in the foregoing 
examples ? Which one is indicated by inflection ? The 
possessive case of nouns is the only one that has a spe- 
cial form. 

Nouns are inflected for number and for the possessive 
case. 

A noun is said to be declined when its number and case 
forms are regularly arranged; as, — 





Declension of a Noun 






Singular 


Plural 


Nom. 


boy 


boys 


Poss. 


boy's 


boys' 


Obj. 


boy 


boys 



EXERCISE 51 

State the kind, the gender, the number, and the case of the 
nouns in the follozving sentences : — 

1. This tree stood in the centre of an ancient wood, 

2. The waves rush in on every side. 

3. Grandfather's chair stood by the fireside. 

4. The stranger shook his head mournfully. 

5. Birds have wonderfully keen eyes. 

6. He shook his head, shouldered the rusty firelock, and with 
a heart full of trouble and anxiety turned his steps homeward. 

7. Dark lightning flashed from Roderick's eye. — scott. 

8. When the rock was hid by the surge's swell. 
The mariners heard the warning bell. — southey. 

9. The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. — Gray. 

10. They shook the depths of the desert gloom. — hem ans. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE 52 

(i) Write five sentences, each containing a noim in the 
nominative case. 

(2) Write five sentences, each containing a noun in the 
possessive case. 

(3) Write five sentences, each containing a noun in the 
objective case. 

CHAPTER XXIII 

POSSESSIVE CASE 

Point out the nouns that are in the possessive case, and 
tell how each possessive is formed : — 

1. She knelt by the lady's side. 

2. The ladies' gallery is closed. 

3. Men's voices were heard. 

(i) Add the apostrophe and 5 {'s) to a singular noun, to 
form the possessive ; as, boy, boys ; man, mans. 

The s is sometimes omitted in poetry for the sake of the 
metre ; and it is also omitted in a few words where too 
many hissing sounds would come together ; as, for con- 
science' sake ; for righteousness' sake ; for Jesus' sake. 

(2) Add the apostrophe (') to a plural noun ending in s, 
to form the possessive ; as, boys, boys' ; ladies, ladies'. 

(3) Add the apostrophe and 5 ('«) to a plural noun not 
ending in s, to form the possessive ; as, men, men's ; children, 
children's. 



POSSESSIVE CASE 49 

The possessive sign does not always denote possession. 
It is used to show authorship, origin, kind, etc. ; as, Lowell's 
poems ; the sun's rays ; men's clothing. 

EXERCISE 53 

Point out the nouns in these sentences, tell how each is 
used, and name its case : — 

1. The lark's song rang in her ears. 

2. The sound of horses' hoofs was heard in the distance. 

3. The scene brought to mind an old writer's account of Christ- 
mas preparations. 

4. The incidents of the Revolution plentifully supphed the bar- 
ber's customers with topics of conversation. 

5. The boy rang the janitor's bell. 

6. A burst of laughter came from the servants' hall. 

7. I noted but two warblers' nests during the season. 

8. Vainly the fowler's eye 

Might mark thy distant flight to do' thee wrong. — Bryant. 

9. He felt that his little daughter's love was worth a thousand 
times more than he had gained by the Golden Touch. — Hawthorne. 

EXERCISE 54 

Write in parallel columns the possessive singular, and 
the possessive plural forms of the follozving words : — 



sister 


woman 


boy 


girl 


mother 


wife 


soldier 


son 


bee 


bird 


friend 


teacher 


poet 


child 


man 


judge 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER XXIV 

POSSESSIVE CASE OF COMPOUNDS 

Tell how the possessive case is formed in the following 
compound words and phrases : — 

1. The lieutenant-governor's revery had now come to an end. 

2. Bright and Dun's window is filled with flowers. 

3. They are reading Green's and Macaulay's histories. 

(4) Compound nouns, words in apposition,^ and phrases re- 
garded as compound, add the possessive sign to the last word 
only ; as, my brother-in-law' s house ; for thy servant David' s 
sake ; somebody else's hat. 

(5) Two or more connected nouns implying joint possession 
add the possessive sign to the last noun only ; as, William 
and Marys reign ; Mason and Dixon's line. 

(6) Each of two or more connected nouns implying sep- 
arate possession must . take the possessive sign ; as, Webster s 
and Worcester s dictionaries ; Longfellow's and Lowell's 
poems. 

EXERCISE 55 

Explain the possessives in the following examples : — 

1. In my Father's house are many mansions. 

2. Hope vanished from Fitz-James's eye. — Scott. 

3. Enough, enough ; sit down and share 

A soldier's couch, a soldier's fare. — scott. 

4. A man's first care should be to avoid the reproaches of his 
own heart. — Addison. 

' See page 183. 



POSSESSIVE CASE 51 

5. This happened after General Washington's departure from 
Cambridge. 

6. Many a young man ransacked the garret, and brought forth 
his great-grandfather's sword, corroded with rust and stained with 
the blood of King Philip's War. — Hawthorne. 

7. The rest of the house was in the French taste of Charles 
the Second's time. — Irving. 

8. The grocers', butchers', and fruiterers' shops were thronged 
with customers. — Irving. 

9. Hither they came, from the cornfields, from the clearing in 
the forest, from the blacksmith's forge, from the carpenter's work- 
shop, and from the shoemaker's seat. — Hawthorne. 

10. Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, 
Thy God's, and truth's. — Shakespeare. 

11. What good woman does not laugh at her husband's or 
father's jokes and stories time after time? — Thackeray. 

12. These are Clan- Alpine's warriors true. — scott. 

13. I dined with a party of gentlemen at my friend Mr. James 
Russell Lowell's. — Holmes. 

14. If to do were as easy as to know what were well to do, 
chapels had been churches, and poor men's cottages princes' pal- 
aces. — Shakespeare. 

15. The groves were God's first temples. — Bryant. 

EXERCISE 56 

(i.) Write five sentences, each containing connected no7ins 
denoting joint possession. 

(2.) Write five sentences, each containing comiected nonns 
denoting separate possession. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER XXV 

SUBSTITUTE FOR THE POSSESSIVE INFLECTION 

Possession is sometimes indicated by the objective case 
with the preposition of; as, The voice of the speaker, for 
the speaker s voice. 

This form is generally used in speaking of things with- 
out life; as, The lid of the box ; the bank of the river. 

This form is preferred also in speaking of persons, when 
the possessive form would be ambiguous or awkward ; as, 
The wife of one of my brothers. 

When a thing is personified,^ the possessive sign is gen- 
erally used, particularly by the poets ; as, — 

Go forth, under the open sky, and list 
To Nature^ s teachings Bryant. 

Certain words and phrases denoting a period of time 
take the possessive case also ; as, A day's journey ; a 
week's vacation ; six montJis' interest. 

Of is sometimes used before the possessive form of a 
noun or pronoun, making a sort of double possessive ; as, 
A cousin of Richard' s ; a friend of mine. 

EXERCISE 57 

Explain fully the case of each noun in the following sen- 
tences, and point ont the examples in zvhich possession is 
indicated by the objective case with tJie preposition of:-'- 

1 When an inanimate thing has ascribed to it the attributes of a person, it is 
said to be personified. 



HOW TO PARSE NOUNS 53 

1. I flew to the pleasant fields traversed so oft 

In life's morning march, when my bosom was young. 

— Campbell. 

2. He has not learned the lesson of life who does not every 
day surmount a fear. — Emerson. 

3. The trade of America had increased far beyond the specu- 
lations of the most sanguine imaginations. — Burke. 

4. The poetry of earth is never dead.— keats. 

5. Either measure would have cost no more than a day's 
debate. — Burke. 

6. They came without a moment's delay. 

7. She has had two years' experience. 

8. He likes neither winter's snow nor summer's heat. 

9. The city was taken after a ten years' siege. 
10. The chieftain's pride was humbled. 

EXERCISE 58 

Select from your Reader — 

(i) Five sentences in which possession is indicated by the 
objective case with the preposition of. 

(2) Five other sentences in which possession is indicated by 
the use of the possessive sign. 

CHAPTER XXVI 

HOW TO PARSE NOUNS 

To parse a word is to describe it by stating (i) the 
part of speech it is ; (2) its inflection, if it has any ; 
and (3) its syntax, or grammatical relation to other words 
in the sentence. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

To parse a noun, state — 

(i) Its class. (3) Its gender. 

(2) Its number. (4) Its case. 

(5) Its syntax or construction — use in the sentence. 

Example. — His eyes sparkled with joy when he heard 
Jason s reply. 

1. Eyes is a noun, common, plural number, neuter gender, and 
nominative case — subject of the verb sparkled} 

2. Joy is a noun, abstract, singular number, neuter gender, and 
objective case — object of the preposition with. 

3. JasorCs is a noun, proper, singular number, masculine gender, 
and possessive case — depending upon the noun reply. 

4. Reply is a noun, common, singular number, neuter gender, and 
objective case — object of the verb heard. 

EXERCISE 59 

Parse the nouns in the following sentences : — 

1. The lights of the church shone through the door. 

2. Nell and her grandfather rose from the ground, and took 
the track through the wood. — Dickens. 

3. The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. — Gray. 

4. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. — Shelley. 

5. Strong reasons make strong actions. — Shakespeare. 

6. I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs. — byron. 

^ When the pupil is familiar with the different steps, a briefer method of 
parsing may be followed ; thus, Eyes is a noun, common, plural, neuter, nomi- 
native, subject of the verb sparkled. 



REVIEW OF NOUNS 55 

7. I now bade a reluctant farewell to the old hall. — Irving 

8. A great deal of talent is lost in the world for the want of 
a little courage. — Sydney Smith. 

9. The eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill. — Byron. 

10. Is Saul also among the prophets? —Bible. 

11. The doe lifted her head a little with a quick motion, and 
turned her ear to the south. — c. D. Warner. 

12. They had now reached the road which turns off to Sleepy 
Hollow ; but Gunpowder, who seemed possessed with a demon, 
instead of keeping up it, made an opposite turn, and plunged 
headlong down hill to the left. — Irving. 

13. 'Tis the middle of night by the castle clock. 
And the owls have awakened the crowing cock. 

— Coleridge. 

14. A soft answer turneth away wrath. — Bible. 

15. Some have even learned to do without happiness, and in- 
stead thereof have found blessedness. — Carlyle. 

16. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. — Gray. 

17. Reading maketh a full man, conversation a ready man, and 
writing an exact man. — Bacon. 

18. Charity beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all 
things, endureth all things. — Bible. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

REVIEW OF NOUNS 
EXERCISE 60 

What is a noun ? Mention the two leading classes ot 
nouns and tell the difference between these classes. What 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

is a collective noun ? What is an abstract noun ? State 
three ways in which abstract nouns are formed, and illus- 
trate by exanaples. 

What is meant by inflection ? To what do the inflections 
of nouns relate ? 

How do most nouns form the plural ? Mention other 
ways in which nouns form their plurals, and illustrate by 
example. 

Give the plural of ivatch, piano, potato, donkey, lily, loaf, 
roof, tooth, ox, sheep. 

Distinguish between the meaning of brothers and brethren; 
fishes and fish ; indexes and indices ; pennies and pence. 

State three ways in which compound nouns form the 
plural, and illustrate by examples. 

Give the plural of larva, ahimnus, axis, beau, bandit, 
seraph. Why do these nouns not form their plurals in the 
usual way.-* 

What is gender .? How many genders are there, and 
what does each denote } Mention three ways in which the 
gender of nouns is distinguished. 

Give the feminine nouns corresponding to the nouns hart, 
monky nephew, host, master, governor, executor, hero, man- 
servant. 

Tell the gender of each of the following nouns, if it has 
any : woman, heiress, landlord, doe, waitress, czar, admiftis- 
tratrix, guest, friend, witness, cousin, sun, wind, table, house. 

How many cases have nouns .? What determines the case 
of a noun } Which case has a special form } How is the 
possessive case of nouns formed } How is the possessive 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 57 

formed in compound words and phrases ? How may pos- 
session be indicated without the possessive form ? When 
is this way preferable ? 

CHAPTER XXVni 

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, and tell 
which denote the person speaking, which the person spoken 
to, and which the person or thing, spoken of : — 

1. I am monarch of all I survey. 

2. You will be surprised when you read the report. 

3. He requested that we should be present. 

4. Buy the truth, and sell it not. 

A pronoun that shows by its form whether it denotes 
the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person 
or thing spoken of, is a personal pronoun. 

A pronoun that denotes the person speaking is in the 
first person ; as, /, we. 

A pronoun that denotes a person spoken to is in the 
second person ; as, thoit, ye, you. 

A pronoun that denotes a person or a thing spoken of 
is in the third person ; as, he, she, it, they. 

Person is that distinction of pronouns which denotes 
the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing 
spoken of. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Nouns have no forms to distinguish person ; but a noun is 
sometimes said to be of the first person when it is in 
apposition^ with a pronoun of the first person, and of the 
second person when it is in apposition with a pronoun of 
the second person, or when it is used in address ; as, — 

'Tis I, Hamlet the Dane. (First person.) 
Thou, Lord, seest me. (Second person.) 
O death, where is thy sting? (Second person.) 

Declension of the Personal Pronouns 

first person 

Singular Plural 

Norn. I Nom. we 

Poss. my, mine Poss. our, ours 

Obj. me Obj. us 

The plural form we (our, ours, ns) is sometimes used 
vaguely for people in general ; as, — 

The world is too much with us; late and soon, 
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers. 

— Wordsworth. 

The form zt>e is frequently used by editors and authors, 
when referring to themselves ; as, — 

JVe have remarked elsewhere on this portrait. 

IVe is also used by kings and some other rulers in 
issuing proclamations and giving orders ; as, — 

You have good leave to leave m : when we need 
Your use and counsel, we shall send for you. 

— Shakespeare, BeJify IV, 
1 See page 183. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 59 

SECOND PERSON 

Singular Plural 

No7n. thou Noni. ye, you 

Pass, thy, thine Poss. your, yours 

Obj. thee Obj. you 

Thou, the second person singular, is no longer in common 
use. It is now chiefly used in prayer and in poetry ; as, — 

Withhold not tJioii thy tender mercies from me. 

I see in thy gentle eyes a tear ; 

They turn to me in sorrowful thought ; 
Thou thinkest of friends, the good and dear. 

Who were for a time, and now are not. — Bryant. 

The pronoun j/^z/ is used, in ordinary speech, in the place 
of thoic, whether one or more than one person is addressed. 
It is plural in form, and takes a plural verb ; as, — 

You are merry, my lord. — Shakespeare. 

You are not wood, you are not stones, but men. — Shakespeare. 







THIRD 


PERSON 








Singular 




Plural 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


Masc, Fe?n., or Neut. 


Nom. 


he 


she 


it 


they 


Poss. 


his 


her, hers 


its 


their, theirs 


Obj. 


him 


her 


it 


them 



The pronoun of the masculine gender is generally used 
to refer to 'd noun which may denote a person of either 
sex ; as, — 

Each pupil must provide his own material. 



6o ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The pronoun of the masculine gender is also used in 
referring to animals or things that are supposed to possess 
masculine qualities, and the pronoun of the feminine gender 
is used in referring to animals or things to which feminine 
qualities are attributed ; as, — 

The eagle soars above his nest. 

Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. —Coleridge. 

The pronoun of the neuter gender is often used to refer 
to animals or to young children, in cases where the sex is 
not considered ; as, — 

The deer raised its head. 

The infant knew its name. 

The pronoun it is also used as the grammatical subject of 
a verb which is followed by the real or logical subject; as, — 

// is useless to deny the fact. 

// is used as an impersonal subject when the meaning 
intended is expressed or implied by the verb itself ; as, — 

It rains. // snows. 

// is sometimes used as an impersonal or indefinite object; 
as,— 

Come and trip it as you go. 
They lord it over us. 

The possessive forms my, thy, her, our, your, and their are 
used before the nouns they modify, and the forms mine, thine, 
hers, ours, yours, and theirs are used after the noun ; as, ^ 

My sister, but sister mine. 

This is my book. The book is mine. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 6l 

The possessive forms of the pronoun are often called pos- 
sessive adjectives. 

Mine and thine were formerly used before their nouns, 
provided the nouns began with a vowel sound ; as, — 

Bow down thine ear. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills. 

This usage may still be observed in our Enghsh Bible 
and in poetry. 

EXERCISE 61 

In the followitig sentences, explain the special uses of the 
italicized prononns : — 

1. Every member is expected to do his part. 

2. The child closed its eyes. 

3. The camel kneels to receive its burden. 

4. How glorious, through his depths of light, 

Rolls the majestic sun ! 

5. The deer left he}' dehcate footprint in the soft mould. 

6. The bear broke away from his keeper. 

7. The sea is mighty, but a mightier sways 

His restless billows. 

8. The merry lark, he soars on high. 

No worldly thought o'ertakes Jiim ; 
He sings aloud to the clear blue sky, 

And the daylight that awakes him. 
As sweet a lay, as loud, as gay. 

The nightingale is trilling ; 
With feeling bliss, no less than his, 

Her Httle heart is thrilling. — hartley Coleridge. 

9. Z^" is one thing to be well informed, it is another to be wise. 
10. Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life of it. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

11. //is said that he will speak. 

12. They had to foot it to the station. 

13. Agree with thine adversary quickly. 

14. And now there came both mist and snow, 

And it grew wondrous cold.— Coleridge. 

CHAPTER XXIX 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

Tell how the italicized pronouns in the following sen 
tences are formed, and how each is used : — 

1. The boy hurt himself. 

2. We often deceive ourselves. 

3. I myself heard the remark. 

The pronouns my, our, thy, your, him, her, it, and the7n 
are used with self or selves to form compound personal 
pronouns ; thus, — 

compound personal, pronouns 

Singular Plural 

First Person. myself ourselves 

, „ f thyself 

Second Person. \ ,^ yourselves 

[ yourself 

r himself 

Third Person. \ herself themselves 

itself 

The compound personal pronouns are used for emphasis 
in the nominative and the objective, either in apposition 
with a noun or pronoun or alone ; as, — 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 63 

I myself longed to go. 
Then rest thee here till dawn of day ; 
Myself y^\!\ guide thee on thy way. —Scott. 
Here we met the poet hwiself 

The compound personal pronouns are also used in the 
objective case as reflexives, that is, as objects denoting the 
same person or thing as the subject of the verb; as, — 
He hid himself from his friends. 
I let myself down with a rope. 

Formerly the simple personal pronoun was used reflex- 

ivcly ; as, — 

Now I lay me down to sleep. 

This usage is now rare, except as an indirect object; as, — 
I have bought me a new hat. 

EXERCISE 62 
Tell which pronouns in the following sejitences are used 
emphatically and which reflexively : — 

1. A house divided against itself cannot stand. 

2. He himself was not the author of the article. 

3. We found ourselves in an absolutely French region. 

4. He bowed to the audience and then seated himself. 

5. The book itself could hardly be called a novel. 

6. They interested themselves in the sports of the children. 

7. I myself longed to cut free from prescribed bondage. 

8. Thus influenced, I conquered myself in a single evening, 
and lost my shyness forever. 

9. These remarks helped me to justify to myself that early 
choice. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER XXX 

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS— Co>!/i>iued 
II. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 

Which of the italicized words below are used as adjec- 
tives ? Which are used as pronouns ? 

1. Many tickets were sold. 

2. Many were unable to secure seats. 

3. Look at this clock. 

4. This is sold. 

Certain words can be used to limit nouns or to stand 
for nouns. When such words limit nouns, they are adjec- 
tives ; when they stand for nouns they are adjective pro- 
nouns. Sometimes there is a difference of form ; as, no 
(adj.), none (pro.); other (adj.), otJiers (pro.). 

Adjective pronouns are sometimes divided into the following 
classes : — 

(i) Demonstrative pronouns, those pointing out the things to 
which they relate ; as, this (plural these), that (plural those). 

(2) Distributive pronouns, those relating to persons or things 
considered separately; as, each, either, neither. 

(3) Reciprocal pronouns, those expressing a mutual or reciprocal 
relation ; as, each other, one another. 

They feared each other (that is, each feared the other). 
They assisted one another (that is, each one of them assisted 
another) . 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 6$ 

(4) Indefinite pronouns, those not specifying any particular indi- 
vidual or thing ; as, a//, another, any, both, few, many, none, one, 
other, several, so?fie. 

Some adjective pronouns are inflected for number and 
case. Thus, this and that have the plural forms these and 
those; one and other have plural and possessive forms ; and 
either and another have a form for the possessive singular. 

EXERCISE 63 
Tell whether the italicised ivords in the following sen- 
tences are adjectives or pronouns, giving reasons in each 
case : — 

1. Many, alas! had fallen in battle.— Hawthorne. 

2. There is a calm for those who weep. —j. Montgomery. 

3. All are architects of fate. 

Working in these walls of time ; 
Some with massive deeds and great, 

Some with ornaments of rhyme. — Longfellow. 

4. Any life that is worth living must be a struggle. 

— Dean Stanley. 

5. The man deserving the name is one whose thoughts and 
exertions are for others rather than for himself. —Sir Walter Scott. 

6. All men think all men mortal but themselves. —Young. 

7. Men at some time are masters of their fate. —Shakespeare. 

8. This was the noblest Roman of them all. —Shakespeare. 

9. My worthy friend Sir Roger is one of those who is not only 
at peace with himself, but beloved and esteemed by all about him. 

— .\DDISON. 

10. It is one thing to be well informed ; it is another to be 
wise. — Robertson. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

1 1 . We too seldom think how much we owe to ^/lose formidable 
savages. —John Fiske. 

12. J^ew shajl part where many meet. —Campbell. 

13. To know 

T/iat which before us hes in daily life 
Is the prime wisdom. — Milton. 

EXERCISE 64 

Construct sentences contaijiing the following words nsed 
{\) as adjectives; (2) as prononns : — 

both each few several these 

neither none many that other 

CHAPTER XXXI 

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS— C^^/zw/^^ri 
III. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

Tell how many assertions are made in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences, read the principal statement, and state 
the office of the italicized part : — 

1. We found a guide, who answered our questions. 

2. The wind, which rose suddenly, had now ceabed. 

3. They that seek wisdom will be wise. 

Which words in the dependent clauses above refer to 
preceding nouns, and how are the dependent clauses joined 
to the independent clauses .-' 

A pronoun that refers or relates to a noun or another pro- 
noun, and joins to it a dependent clause, is a relative pronoun. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 6/ 

The noun or pronoun to which a relative pronoun refers 
or relates is called its antecedent, because the antecedent 
usually precedes the pronoun ; as, — 

What is that sotmd which now bursts on his ear? 
He who would be great in the eyes of others must first learn 
to be nothing in his own. 

The simple relative pronouns are wJio^ which, that, and 
what. 

EXERCISE 65 

Point out the i^elative pronouns in the following sentences, 
name their antecedents, and tell what the pronoims con- 
nect : — 

1. This was a signal to the patriots, who instantly despatched 
swift messengers to rouse the country. 

2. We made preparations for our journey, which lay through 
mountainous regions. 

3. They were accompanied by some Indians, who were skilful 
divers. 

4. They saw nothing more valuable than a curious sea-shrub, 
which was growing beneath the water. 

5. He that filches from me my good name 
Robs me of that which not enriches him, 
And makes me poor indeed. —Shakespeare. 

6. In the centre of the wood stood an enormous tuhp tree, 
which towered like a giant above all the other trees of the 
neighborhood. 

7. The general, who was on horseback, ordered the troops to halt. 

8. They have taken forts that military men said could not be 
taken. 



6S ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

9. They that have done this deed are honorable. 
The flame that lit the battle's wreck 
Shone round him o'er the dead. 

11. Is it the wind that moaneth bleak? 

12. It is indeed impossible to kill a weed, which the soil has 
a natural disposition to produce. 

CHAPTER XXXII 

USE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

W/io is usually applied to persons ; as, — 

Hail to the chief w/io in triumph advances. —Scott. 
Old Kasper took it from the boy, 
IV/io stood expectant by.— Southey. 
Can this be she, 
The lady, who knelt at the old oak tree ? — Coleridge. 

Sometimes, particularly in the description of individual 
traits or acts, iv/io refers to animals ; as, — 

Twice have the crow-blackbirds attempted a settlement in my 
pines, and twice have the robins, w/io claim a right of preemption, 
so successfully played the part of border-ruffians as to drive them 
away. —Lowell. 

In the next cage [we see] a hyena from Africa, w/io has doubtless 
howled around the pyramids. —Hawthorne. 

I knew a tame deer in a settlement in the edge of the forest, who 
had the misfortune to break her leg. — c. D. Warner. 

He was only answered by the cawing of a flock of idle crows, . . . 
w/io, secure in their elevation, seemed to look down and scoff" at the 
poor man's perplexities. Irving. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 69 

Which is applied to the lower animals and to things with- 
out life ; as, — 

His good steed, which had borne him through many a hard 
fight, had fallen under him. — prescott. 

Nature has indeed given us a soil which yields bounteously to 
the hands of industry. —Webster. 

Which was formerly used in speaking of persons ; as, — 
Our Father which art in heaven. 

Which sometimes has a phrase or a clause for its ante- 
cedent ; as, — 

In the midst of these my musings she desired me to reach her a 
little salt upon the point of my knife, which I did in such a trepi- 
dation and hurry of obedience that I let it drop by the way. 

— Addison. 
It is probable that when this great work was begun, which must 
have been many hundred years ago, there was religion among this 
people — Addison. 

As he approached the village, he met a number of people, but 
none whom he knew, which somewhat surprised him, for he had 
thought himself acquainted with every one in the country round. 

— Irving. 
When he was angered, which was often enough, he gave his com- 
mands and breathed threats of punishment like any king. 

— R. L. Stevenson. 

In each of the foregoing examples, zvhich refers not to a 
single word, but to the idea expressed by the preceding 
clause. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

That is applied to persons, to animals, and to things; as, — 

Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. —Shakespeare. 
Even the very dog that lay stretched at his feet . . . would look 
fondly up in his master's face. — Irving. 

A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. —Bible. 

That is generally preferred to who or whicJi — 
(i) In introducing a relative clause that limits or re- 
stricts the meaning of the antecedent ; ^ as, — 

They that touch pitch will be defiled. 

(2) After a joint reference to persons and things; as, — 

Where are the boy and dog that we met ? 

When the relative that is used as the object of a prepo- 
sition, the preposition follows the pronoun ; as, — 

Here is the hat that you looked at. 

What refers to things. It is generally used without an 
antecedent expressed, and is equivalent to tJiat which; as, — 

She remembers what (that which) she reads. 

As is sometimes used as a relative pronoun. It is then 
usually preceded by siich ; as, — 

Let such as (those who) hear take heed. 

1 Some recent authorities teach that only that should be used when the 
relative clause is limiting or defining ; as, the man that runs fastest wins the 
race ; but who or which when it is descriptive or coordinating : as, this man, 
who ran fastest, won the race ; but, though present usage is perhaps tending 
in the direction of such a distinction, it neither has been nor is a rule of 
English speech, nor is it likely to become one. — The Century Dictionary. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 71 

But is sometimes a relative pronoun. It has a negative 
force ; as, — 

There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 

But has ( that has not) one vacant chair. — Longfellow. 

DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

Who is declined, in both singular and plural, with the 
nominative who, the possessive whose, and the objective 
whom ; as, — 

Blessed is he who has found his work. 
There is a reaper whose name is Death. 
He who7n I loved is dead. 

The other relative pronouns are not declined, but whose is 
often used as if it v^ere the possessive form of which (that 
is, as equivalent to of zvhidi) ; as, — 

Bordered with trees whose gay leaves fly. — Bryant. 
The simple relative pronouns have the following forms : — 







Singular and Plural 




Nom. 


who 


which that 


what 


Boss. 


whose 


(whose) 




Obj. 


whom 


which that 


what 



COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

Pronouns formed by adding ever, so, or soever to who, 
which, and what are called compound relative pronouns ; as, 
whoever, whoso, whosoever; whichever, whichsoever ; what- 
ever, whatsoever. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

These compounds are generally used without antecedents 
expressed. Thus, — ■ 

Whoever looks may find the spot. 

Whoso diggeth a pit shall fall therein. 

Whosoever will save his life, shall lose it. 

Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might. 

Since they do not refer to definite persons or things, they 
are sometimes called indefinite relative pronouns. 

Whoever and whosoever are declined as follows : — 

Singular and Plural 

Noj?i. whoever whosoever 

Poss. whosever whosesoever 

ObJ. whomever whomsoever 

The person, number, and gender of a relative pronoun 
are determined by its antecedent, thus : — 

He prayeth best, who loveth best 

All things, both great and small. —Coleridge. 

In this example, zvho refers to he, hence it is third per- 
son, singular number, and masculine gender. 

The case of a relative pronoun depends upon its use in 
its own clause. Thus, in the sentence, " Uneasy lies the 
head that wears a crown," that is the subject of the verb 
wears, hence it is in the nominative case., In the sentence, 
"The evil that men do lives after them," that is the object 
of the verb do, and is, therefore, in the objective case. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 73 

EXERCISE 66 

Point out the relative pronouns in the following sentences, 
name their antecedents, tell what the pronoims connect, and 
give the person, number, gender, and case of each : — 

1. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend. 

2. Where lies the land to which the ship would go? 

3. My ramble soon led me to the church, which stood a little 
distance from the village.— Irving. 

4. What a man has learnt is of importance, but what he is, what 
he can do, what he will become, are more significant things, 

— Helps. 

5. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty. — Bible. 

6. A land' that will not yield satisfactorily without irrigation, and 
whose best paying produce requires intelligent as well as careful 
husbandry, will never be an idle land. — Warner. 

7. All precious things, discovered late. 

To those that seek them issue forth. — Tennyson. 

8. They are slaves who dare not be 

In the right with two or three. — Lowell. 

9. Here, then, I parted, sorrowfully, from the companion with 
whom I set out on my journey.— holmes. 

10. He who has sought renown about the world, and has reaped 
a full harvest of worldly favor, will find, after all, that there is no 
love, no admiration, no applause, so sweet to the soul as that which 
springs up in his native place. — Irving. 

11. We have no bird whose song will match the nightingale's 
in compass, none whose note is so rich as that of the European 
blackbird : but for mere rapture I have never heard the bobo- 
link's rival. — Lowell. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

12. Whoever examines the maps of London which were pub- 
hshed toward the close of the reign of Charles the Second will 
see that only the nucleus of the present capital then existed. 

— Macau LAY. 

13. Whatever befell them, it was not dishonor, and whatever 
failed them, they were not found wanting to themselves. 

— R. L. Stevenson. 

14. Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper. 

15. The books which help you most are those which make 
you think most. — Parker. 

16. They never fail who die in a great cause. — byron. 

17. The Upper Lake discharges itself into the Lower by a 
brook which winds through a mile and a half of swamp and 
woods. — Warner. 

18. I tell you that which you yourselves do know. 

— Shakespeare. 

19. How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him 
that bringeth good tidings ! — Bible. 

20. Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately 

sprang and stood 
In brighter light, and softer air, a beauteous sisterhood? 

21. The charities that soothe and heal and bless, 
Lie scattered at the feet of men like flowers. 

22. There breathes not clansman of thy line 

But would have given his life for mine. — scott. 

OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 

The relative pronoun is often omitted when, if expressed, 
it would be in the objective case; as, — 

Observe the language well in all [//la/] you write. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 75 

In poetry, the relative pronoun is sometimes omitted, 
even when it would be the subject; as, — 

'Tis distance [_f/ia^'] lends enchantment to the view. — Campbell. 

The antecedent of a relative pronoun is sometimes omitted, 
being implied in the pronoun; as, — 

[ZT^] Who breaks, pays. 



EXERCISE 67 

Tell where relative pronouns are omitted in the following 
sentences, and name the case of each omitted word: — 

1 . I am not altogether unqualified for the business I have under- 
taken. —Addison. 

2. All the faces he drew were very remarkable for their smiles. 

— Addison. 

3. The house we lived in is sold. 

4. Few and short were the prayers we said. — Wolfe. 

5. The stranger at my fireside cannot see 

The forms I see, nor hear the sounds I hear. — Longfellow. 

6. 'Tis the sunset of Hfe gives me mystical lore. — Campbell. 

7. I am monarch of all I survey. — Cowper. 

8. Nearly all of his poems were intended to further a cause he 
lield dear, or to teach a lesson he thought needful. 

9. All I hear 
Is the north wind drear. 



76 ENCxLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER XXXIII ' 

RELATIVE CLAUSES 

EXPLANATORY i^ND RESTRICTIVE 

Tell which clauses, in the following sentences, introduce 
additional ideas about the antecedents, and which limit or 
restrict their meaning : — 

1. The physician, who was in the next room, entered. 

2. I thrice presented him a kingly crown, 
Which he did thrice refuse. 

3. I know the man that must hear me. 

4. They that have done this deed are honorable. 

A clause that introduces an additional idea about the 
antecedent is explanatory ; as, — 

They had one son, who had grown up to be the staff and pride 
of their age. 

The cargo, which was valuable, was lost. 

A clause that limits or restricts the meaning of the 
antecedent is restrictive ; as, — 

The bird that soars 071 highest wing 
Builds on the ground her lowly nest. 

That is generally preferred to %vJw or zvJiicJi in introducing 
a restrictive clause.^ 

A relative clause not restrictive is separated from the 
remainder of the sentence by the comma. 

1 See footnote page 70. 



RELATIVE CLAUSES TJ 

EXERCISE 68 

Point out the relative pronotms in the following sentences, 
and tell in each case whether they intj'oditce explanatory or 
restrictive clauses : — 

1. He that is not with me is against me. 

2. The Carrier, who had turned his face from the door, signed 
to him to go if he would. — Dickens. 

3. Carefully then were covered the embers that glowed on the 
hearthstone. — Longfellow. 

4. Not far from the gateway they came to a bridge, which seemed 
to be built of iron. — Hawthorne. 

5. The first spring wild-flowers, whose shy faces among the dry 
leaves and rocks are so welcome, yield no honey. —John Burroughs. 

6. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the 
less weight it carries. —Addison. 

7. We were the first that ever burst 

Into that silent sea. — Coleridge. 

8. Bordered with trees whose gay leaves fly 
On every breath that sweeps the sky 
The fresh dark acres furrowed lie. 

And ask the sower's hand. — Bryant. 

9. The mind that lies fallow but a single day sprouts up in 
follies that are only to be killed by a constant and assiduous 
culture. —Addison. 

10. A tree, which grew out from the hillside, was the living 
centre-beam of the roof. — Stevenson. 

11. And everybody praised the Duke, 

Who this great fight did win. — southey. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

12. Brazil, which is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, is 
covered with a vegetation of incredible profusion. Indeed, so rank 
and luxuriant is the growth, that Nature seems to riot in the very 
wantonness of power. A great part of this immense country is 
filled with dense and tangled forests, whose noble trees, blossoming 
in unrivalled beauty, and exquisite with a thousand hues, throw 
out their produce in endless prodigality. On their summit are 
perched birds of gorgeous plumage, which nestle in their dark 
and lofty recesses. Below, their bases and trunks are crowded 
with brushwood, creeping plants, innumerable parasites, all swarming 
with life. There, too, are myriads of insects of every variety ; 
reptiles of strange and singular form ; serpents and lizards, spotted 
with deadly beauty : all of which find means of existence in this 
vast workshop and repository of Nature. And that nothing may be 
wanting to this land of marvels, the forests are skirted by enormous 
meadows, which, reeking with heat and moisture, supply nourishment 
to countless herds of wild cattle, that browse and fatten on their 
herbage ; while the adjoining plains, rich in another form of life, 
are the chosen abode of the subtlest and most ferocious animals, 
which prey on each other, but which it almost seems no human 
power can hope to extirpate. — Buckle. 

EXERCISE 69 
Select from yo7ir Reader or History six relative clauses 
that are explanatory, and six others that are restrictive. 

CHAPTER XXXIV 

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS — C^Jw/'/wM^^ 
IV. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 

How are the italicized u'ords used in the following 
sentences ; 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 79 

1. Who comes here ? 

2. Which reached home first ? 
3o What is the news ? 

A pronoun used in asking a question is an interrogative 
pronoun. An interrogative pronoun may be used in a 
direct or an indirect question ; thus, — 

What did you see? (Direct question.) 

I asked what you saw. (Indirect question.) 

The interrogative pronouns are zu/io, tvhich, and what. 
Who refers to persons. It is declined like the relative 
who. 

Which refers to persons or to things. It implies selec- 
tion ; as, — 

Which of the brothers sings ? 
Which of the chairs do you prefer ? 

What refers to things ; as, — 

What was in the box ? 

Whether was formerly in common use as an interroga- 
tive pronoun ; as, — 

Whether is greater, the gift or the altar ? 

Which and wJiat are sometimes used as interrogative 
adjectives ; as, — 

Which way shall I fly ? 

Where are they now ? What lands and skies 

Paint pictures in their friendly eyes ? 

What hope deludes, what promise cheers, 

What pleasant voices fill their ears ? — Longfellow. 



8o ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

As an interrogative adjective, what, like w/iich, is used 
of persons as well as of things ; as, — 

What man would say such a thing? Which boy replied? 

EXERCISE 70 

Point out the projioiuis in the following sentences, tell 
the kind of each pronoun^ and name its case : — 

1. Who can understand his errors ? 

2. Which of you, by taking thought, can add one cubit unto his 
stature ? 

3. Shall the clay say to him that fashioneth it. What makest thou? 

4. Who planted this old apple tree ? 

5. What is civilization ? What does it consist in ? 

6. Whom shall I send ? 

7. Ah ! what is that sound which now bursts on his ear? — Dimond. 

8. Who, among the whole chattering crowd, can tell me of the 
forms and the precipices of the chain of tall white mountains that 
girded the horizon at noon yesterday ? Who saw the narrow sunbeam 
that came out of the south, and smote upon their summits until they 
melted and mouldered away in a dust of blue rain? Who saw the 
dance of the dead clouds when the sunlight left them last night, and 
the west wind blew them before it like withered leaves?— ruskin. 

EXERCISE 71 

Tell wJiether the italicized words in the follozving sentences 
are interrogative or relative prononns, giving a reason in each 
instance : — 

1. What is the Constitution ? It is the bond which binds together 
millions of brothers. ~ Daniel Webster. 



HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS 8l 

2. The divine faculty is to see what everybody can look at. — 

— Lowell. 

3. Now tell us all about the war, 

And what they fought each other for. — southey. 

4. The lovely lady Christabel, 
Whom her father loves so well, 
What makes her in the wood so late, 

A furlong from the castle gate ? — Coleridge. 

5. It was with great difficulty that the self-important man in the 
cocked hat restored order ; and having assumed a tenfold austerity 
of brow, demanded again of the unknown culprit, what he came 
there for, and whom he was seeking. — Irving. 

6. Do you ask what the birds say ? 

7. Things are not what they seem. 

8. Who is the great man ? He who is the strongest in the 
exercise of patience ; he who patiently endures injury. 

CHAPTER XXXV 

HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS 

To parse a pronoun, state — 

(i) Its class. 

(2) Its antecedent (if it is a relative pronoun). 

(3) Its person (if it is a personal or a relative pronoun). 

(4) Its number. 

(5) Its gender (if it is a personal pronoun of the third 

person singular). 

(6) Its case. 

(7) Its syntax or construction — use in the sentence. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Example I. And then / think of ojie who in Jicr youthful 
beauty died. 

1. / is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, and 
nominative case — subject of the verb think} 

2. One is an adjective pronoun, third person, singular number, 
and objective case — object of the preposition of. 

3. Who is a relative pronoun, third person, singular number, 
agreeing with its antecedent ofie, and nominative case — subject of 
the verb died. 

4. Her is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, 
feminine gender, and possessive case — depending upon the noun 
beauty. 

Example II. No one heard w^hat he said. 

What is a relative pronoun, used without an antecedent expressed, 
of the third person, singular number, and objective case — object 
of the verb said. 

EXERCISE 72 
Parse the projiouns in the follozving sejitences ; — 

1. The moon did not rise till after ten, so I had two hours of 
intense darkness during which I used ray ears instead of my eyes. 

— M. Thompson. 

2. And what is so rare as a day in June? — Lowell. 

3. Hang around your walls pictures which shall tell stories of 
mercy, hope, courage, faith, and charity. — D. G. Mitchell. 

4. A few hoped, and many feared, that some scheme of mon- 
archy would be established. —John fiske. 

1 Or follow a briefer form, similar to the one suggested on p. 54. 



UOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS 83 

5. With merry songs we mock the wind 

That in the pine top grieves, 
And slumber long and sweetly 

On beds of oaken leaves. — Bryant. 

6. I witnessed a striking incident in bird life which was very 
suggestive. — M. Thompson. 

7. Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star? — Coleridge. 

8. He laid him down and closed his eyes. — southey. 

9. Triumphant arch, that fill'st the sky 

When storms prepare to part, 
I ask not proud Philosophy 

To teach me what thou art. — Campbell. 

10. He that only rules by terror 

Doeth grievous wrong. —Tennyson. 

11. We judge ourselves by what we feel capable of doing, while 
others judge us by what we have already done. — Longfellow. 

12. I fear thee, ancient mariner ! 

I fear thy skinny hand ! 
And thou art long, and lank, and brown, 
As is the ribbed sea-sand. — Coleridge. 

13. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some 
have greatness thrust upon them. — Shakespeare. 

14. He who plants an oak looks forward to future ages, and 
plants for posterity. — Irving. 

15. Which of us shall be the soonest folded to that dim Un- 

known ? 
Which shall leave the other walking in this flinty path 
alone ? — Bryant. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER XXXVI 

REVIEW OF PRONOUNS 
EXERCISE t9 

What is a pronoun ? How does a pronoun differ from 
a noun ? 

Mention the different classes of pronouns and give 
examples of each class. 

What is a personal pronoun ? How many case forms 
has the pronoun of the first person? How is each 
used ? 

Give the second person singular, and tell how it is used. 
Give two uses of the pronoun j/ou. 

Which person has a distinction of gender ? State special 
uses of the pronouns of the masculine, feminine, and neu- 
ter genders. How are the possessive forms of personal 
pronouns used.!* 

Mention the compound personal pronouns, and tell how 
they are formed. 

Give an example of their use as reflexives ; for emphasis. 

How does an adjective pronoun differ from an adjective.? 

Define a relative pronoun. State the distinctions in 
the use of %vho, which, and what. Give a sentence in 
which as is used as a relative pronoun ; in which but is 
so used. 

What is an interrogative pronoun } What words are used 
as interrogative pronouns } 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES 85 

CHAPTER XXXVII 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES 

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, and 
tell what each expresses : — 

1. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. 

2. The sun is warm, the sky is clear. 

3. A little leaven leaveneth the whole lump. 

4. Three years she grew in sun and shower. 

(i) An adjective that expresses quality or kind is a de- 
scriptive adjective ; as, a happy boy ; a narrozv path ; a 
wooden bench. 

The following terms are sometimes applied to certain descriptive 
adjectives : — 

{a) Proper Adjectives, those formed from proper names ; as, 
American forests ; the English language. Proper adjectives begin 
with capital letters. 

(^) Participial Adjectives, which are participles ^ used simply 
as adjectives ; as, burning words, the rising sun, withered leaves. 

(2) An adjective that points out something or denotes 
number or quantity is a limiting adjective ; as, this week ; 
two hours; much trouble. 

A limiting adjective may be used — 

{a) Simply to point out ; as, this, that, the, an, yon, yonder. Sucli 
adjectives are sometimes called demonstrative adjectives. 

^ See page 115, 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(^) To express a definite number ; as, one, two, fourteen, fifty. 

{/) To express an indefinite number or quantity ; as, a7iy, little, 
much, many, some. 

(d) To show the order of things in a series ; as, fifst, second, 
third. 

Tvimiting adjectives expressing number are called numeral ad- 
jectives. Numerals are classified as — 

{a) Cardinals, those denoting how many ; as, one, two, three, 
{b) Ordinals, those denoting the order of things in a series; 
as, third, fourth, fifth. 

An adjective formed from two simple words is called a 
compound adjective ; as, native-born citizen, rock-bound coast, 

low-vaulted roof, tzuenty-tJiird psalm. 

EXERCISE 74 

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, state 
the office of each, and tell zvJiat kind of adjective it is : — 

1. Thirty-two statues of various sizes were found in this field. 

2. Its chief attractions were a never-failing breeze at night, good 
water, and a large garden in the centre of a cleared space. 

3. Hark! 'tis the twanging horn o'er yonder bridge. — Cowper. 

4. We met several men riding at a rapid pace. 

5. Across its antique p^.rti~o 

Tall poplar-trees their shadows throw. — Longfellow. 

6. This long march through the primeval forest and over rugged 
and trackless mountains was one of the most remarkable exploits of 
the war. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES 



87 



7. O blessings on his kindly voice and on his silver hair ! 

8. Suddenly there was a gentle little tap on the inside of the lid. 

9. The thirteen colonies were now free and independent states. 

10. A certain man fell among thieves. 

11. Small service is true service while it lasts. — Wordsworth. 

12. All the air a solemn stillness holds. — Gray. 

13. The good old year is with the past. — Bryant. 

14. With a slow and noiseless footstep 
Comes that messenger divine. — Longfellow. 

15. With fingers weary and worn, 

With eyelids heavy and red, 
A woman sat, in unwomanly rags, 
Plying her needle and thread. — hood. 

16. All the little boys and girls, 
With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls. 

And sparkling eyes and teeth like pearls. 

Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after 

The wonderful music with shouting and laughter. 



EXERCISE 75 

Write sentences containing the following words nsed as 
adjectives : — • 



strong 


any 


many 


brittle 


prompt 


fair 


all 


curved 


every 


distant 


both 


dutiful 


litde 


modern 


neither 


some 


few 


much 


each 


another 


clear 


brief 


certain 


other 


several 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER XXXVIII 

ARTICLES 

The limiting adjectives tJie and an or a (the shortened form 
of an) are sometimes called articles. 

The is the weakened form of that. It is called the definite 
article. 

The is used to point oiii some particular thing or things or 
a class of things ; ^ as, — 

And the Piper advanced and the children followed. — Browning. 
The stars are out by twos and threes. — Wordsworth. 

An or a is the weakened form of the numeral adjective 
one. It is called the indefinite article. 

An or a is used to point out any one thing of a class ; 
as, — 

A man has no more right to say a7i uncivil thing than to act 
one — Dr. Johnson. 

While the indefinite article is generally used before a 
singular noun, it is also used before a plural noun with 
feiv, great, many, or good many ; as, — 

A few days, a great many books, a good many people. 

The indefinite article should not be used before a word 
denoting a whole class. Thus, not "What kind of a bird 
was it .? " " I do not like that sort of a thing " ; but " What 
kind of bird was it 1 " " I do not like that sort of thing." 

^ In such phrases as " i/ie more (/le merrier," ^/w is not an article, but an adverb. 
See page 220. 



ARTICLES 89 

EXERCISE 76 

In the following senteitces find the articles that point out 
(i) some particular thing or things ; (2) a class of things ; 
(3) any one thing of a class : — 

1. Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the 
wickedo 

2. A wise man will make haste to forgive. 

3. The shamrock is the national emblem of Ireland. 

4. A fair httle girl sat under a tree. 

5. The salmon is both a marine and a fresh-water fish, 
4, He returned with the title of Admiral. 

7- The maples redden in the sun ; 

In autumn gold the beeches stand. 
8. Consider the lilies how they grow, 

AN OR A 

An is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound ; ^ 
as, an apple ; an initial ; an hour. 

A is used before a word beginning with a consonant 
sound ; as, a boat ; a day ; many a one {one begins with the 
consonant sound oi w); a unit (imit begins with the conso- 
nant sound of J/). 

EXERCISE 77 

Read the following sentences, supplying the proper form of 
the tndefiftite article. Give in each case a reason for yonr 
choice : — 

1. Be hero in the strife. 

2. He is humorist. 

1 An was formerly used before all words beginning with h, and is still used 
by many writers before h in unaccented syllables; as, an hotel; an historian. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. For Brutus is honorable man. 

4. He that hath trade hath estate, and he that hath 

' calHng hath office of profit and honor. 

5. Such one is seldom found. 

6. I learned that he was universal favorite in the village. 

7. That book is authority on this subject. 

8. hundred dogs bayed deep and strong, 

Clattered hundred steeds along. 

Their peal the merry horns rung out, 

hundred voices joined the shout. 

9. The shades of night were falling fast, 
As through Alpine village passed 

youth, who bore, 'mid snow and ice, 

banner with the strange device, 

Excelsior ! 
10. Truth is the highest thing man may keep. 

REPETITION OR OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE 

When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the 
article is used before the first only ; but when they modify 
different nouns, expressed or understood, the article is used 
before each ; as, — 

A red and white rose (one rose). 
A red and a white rose (two roses). 

Sometimes, however, when the adjectives modify the 
same noun, the article is repeated for emphasis ; as " A71 
amusing and an instructive book." 

The article is sometimes used before each adjective with 
a noun in the singular, and before the first adjective only 



ARTICLES 91 

with a noun in the phu-al ; as, " Omit tJie second and 
the third stanza," or " Omit tlie second and third stanzas." 
When two or more connected nouns refer to the same 
person or thing, the article is used before the first only : 
but when they refer to different persons or things that are 
to be especially distinguished, the article is used before 
each ; as, — 

He was an eminent orator and statesman. 

Its effect approaches to that produced by the pencil or the 
chisel. — Macaulay, 

In expressing a comparison, if two nouns refer to the 
same person or thing, the article is used before the first 
noun only ; but if they refer to different persons or things, 
the article must be used with each noun ; as, — 

1. He would make a better statesman than orator (= He 
would make a better statesman than [he would make an] orator). 

2. He would make a better statesman than aji orator (= He 
would make a better statesman than an orator [would make] ). 

EXERCISE 78 

Give reasons for the repetition or the omission of the article 
in each of tJie folloiving sentences : — 

1. He purchased from the Indians a large and fertile tract of 
land. 

2. Wanted, a stenographer and tj'pewriter. 

3. Wanted, a stenographer and a typewriter. 

4. To the wise and good, old age presents a scene of tranquil 
enjoyment. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

5. On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and priests, they 
looked down with contempt. 

6. Here was a type of the beginning and the end of human 
pomp and power. 

7. He had, indeed, a quick observation and a retentive memory. 

8. What manner of man is this, that even the wind and the sea 
obey him ! 

9. He detected, with unfailing skill, the good or the vile wher- 
ever it existed. 

10. However strange, however grotesque, may be the appearance 
which Dante undertakes to describe, he never shrinks from describing 
it. He gives us the shape, the color, the sound, the smell, the taste. 

11. The third and fourth chapters are brief and dry. 

12. Have you read the seventh and the eighth chapter? 

13. He is a better speaker than writer. 

14. He was a ready orator, an elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an 
excellent cook, and a most contemptible sovereign. 

15. They elected a secretary and a treasurer. 

16. He had naturally a generous and feeling heart. 

17. Down in a green and shady bed a modest violet grew. 

18. What is the difference between a vowel and a consonant? 



CHAPTER XXXIX 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 

Tell how many forms the adjective long has in the follow- 
ing sentences, and what each form expresses: — 

1. This work requires a long pencil. 

2. Your pencil is longer than mine. 

3. Here is the longest pencil in the box. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 93 

Some adjectives change their form to express different de- 
grees of quality. This change of form is called comparison. 

The form of an adjective that simply expresses the quality 
is the positive degree ; as, long, short. 

The form of an adjective that expresses a higher or a 
lower degree of the quality is the comparative degree ; as, 
longer, shorter. 

The form of an adjective that expresses the highest or 
the lowest degree of the quality is the superlative degree ; 
as, longest, shoi'test. 

Most adjectives of one syllable add er to the simple form 
of the adjective, to form the comparative, and esi, to form 
the superlative. If the adjective ends in e, one e is omitted ; 
as, — 

Positive Comparative Superlative 

long longer longest 

pure purer purest 

In adding these suffixes the usual rules for spelling must be ob- 
served. Thus : — 

(i) If the adjective ends in e, omit the e before adding er or 
est ; as, wise, wiser, wisest. 

(2) If the adjective ends in y, preceded by a consonant, change 
the V into/; as, happy, happier, happiest. 

(3) If the adjective ends in a single consonant, preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, thin, thinner, thin?iest. 

Most adjectives of more than one syllable prefix more or 
less to the simple form of the adjective, to form the com- 
parative, and mosi or leasi, to form the superlative; as, — 



94 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Positive 
careful 
fortunate 



Comparative 
more careful 
less fortufiaie 



SurERLATIVE 

7710 st careful 
least fo7-tu7iate' 



A few adjectives of two syllables, ending in sounds that 
unite easily with the sound of er or est, may be compared 
by adding' cr or est; as, 7iobIc, Jiappy, nai'vozu, te7idcr, pleasa7it. 
The form of comparison that is most pleasing to the ear 
should be used. 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON 
Some adjectives are compared irregularly, as follows 



Positive 


Compar.\tive 


Superlative 


bad, ( 


svil, ill 


worse 




worst 


far 




farther, 


further 


farthest, furthest 


fore 




former 




foremost, first 


good, 


well 


better 




best 


hind 




hinder 




hindmost, hindermost 


[in]^ 




inner 




inmost, innermost 


late 




latter. 


later 


last, latest 


litde 




less, lesser 


least 


many, 


much 


more 




most 


near 




nearer 




nearest, next 


nigh 




nigher 




nighest, next 


old 




elder, . 


older 


eldest, oldest 


[out] 




outer, utter 


outmost, outermost 










utmost, uttermost 


[up] 




upper 




upmost, uppermost 



' The words in the brackets are adverbs. No corresponding adjectives exist 
in the positive form. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 95 

MEANINGS OF DOUBLE FORMS 

Farther ■d.wdi fnrtheT- are often used indiscriminately, though 
further is generally preferred in the sense of additional ; 
as, — 

No further reasons were given. 

Latter and last are used in speaking of order in a series ; 
later and latest refer to time ; as, — 

The last volume is just published. 
Have you heard the latest news? 

Lesser is opposed to greater ; as, — 

God made two great lights ; the greater light to rule by day, 
and the lesser light to rule by night. 

Elder is opposed to younger; older, to new ; as, — 

His elder son was in the field. 
Our house is older than yours. 

Outer is opposed to inner ; titter means complete, total. 

The outer wall has fallen. 

The attempt to sail the boat was an utter failure. 

Adjectives expressing meanings that do not admit of dif- 
ferent degrees cannot, if taken in their strict sense, be com- 
pared ; as, one, this, that, equal, square, vertical, perfect, 
universal. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

INFLECTION FOR NUMBER 

The two adjectives this and tJiat are inflected for number; 
thus, — 



Singular 




Plural 


this 




these 


that 


EXERCISE 79 


those 



(i) Write the comparison of beautiful, clear ^ deep, elo- 
quent, famous, heavy, ill, many, little, zvell. 

(2) State the distinction in meaning between (<?) latter 
and later ; {U) elder and older. 

(3) Give ten adjectives that cannot be compared. 

EXERCISE 80 

Point out each adjective in the follozuing se^itences, name 
its degree, and tell what it modifies. 

1. Choose the timbers with greatest care. — Longfellow. 

2. Of all the old festivals, however, that of Christmas awakens 
the strongest and most heartfelt associations. — Irving. 

3. He who ascends to mountain, tops shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow. — byron. 

4. The edges and corners of the box were carved with most 
wonderful skill. — Hawthorne. 

5. She is more precious than rubies. — Bible. 

6. We started immediately after an early luncheon, followed an 
excellent road all the way, and were back in time for dinner at half- 
past six. 

7. The day was cloudy, and the sea very rough. 



HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES 97 

8. Alas ! when evil men are strong, 

No life is good, no pleasure long. — Wordsworth. 

9. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty. — Bible. 

10. The noblest mind the best contentment has. — Spenser. 

11. This was the noblest Roman of them all. — Shakespeare. 

12. The greatest man is he who chooses the right with invincible 
resolution ; who resists the sorest temptations from within and from 
without ; who bears the heaviest burdens cheerfully ; who is calmest 
and most fearless under menaces and frowns ; whose reliance on 
truth, on virtue, on God, is most unfaltering. — Channing. 



CHAPTER XL 

HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES 

To parse an adjective, tell — 

(i) Its class. 

(2) Its degree of comparison (if the adjective can be 
compared). 

(3) Its syntax or construction — use in the sentence. 

Ex.'^MPLE. — The north wind is cold. 

1. The is a limiting adjective, modifying the expression 7iorth 
wind. 

2. North is a descriptive adjective, modifying the noun wbid. 

3. Cold is a descriptive adjective of the positive degree. It 
completes the meaning of the verb is, and modifies the noun wind, 
limited by the and north. 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE 81 

Parse the adjectives in the folloiving sentences : — 

1. It is the most beautiful shrub that ever sprang out of the 
earth. 

2. Every good tree bringeth forth good fruit, but a corrupt tree 
bringeth forth evil fruit. 

3. Such pleasures nerve the arm for strife, 
Bring joyous thoughts and golden dreams. 

4. This door led into a passage out of which opened four 
sleeping-rooms. 

5. Wide is the gate and broad is the way. 

6. In the middle of the eighteenth century there were four 
New England colonies. — Fiske. 

7. Birds of the polar areas of snow and ice are white, those 
of the tropics are vari-colored and brilliant-hued. — M. Thompson. 

8. Straight and strong and magnificently plumed, the palms rose 
to an average height of seventy or eighty feet. — A. B. Edwards. 

9. Spring is the season when the volume of bird- song poured 
round the world is incomparably stronger, fuller, and sweeter than 
at any other. —m. Thompson. 

10. Lo ! while we are gazing, in swifter haste 

Stream down the snows till the air is white. —Bryant. 

11. The habit of observation is the habit of clear and decisive 
gazing. Not by a first casual glance, but by a steady deliberate 
aim of the eye are the rare and characteristic things discovered. 

— John Burroughs. 

12. A form more fair, a face more sweet, 

Ne'er hath it been my lot to meet. — Whittier. 



CHOICE OF ADJECTIVES 99 

13. A beautiful form is better than a beautiful face; a beautiful 
behavior is better than a beautiful form : it gives a higher 
pleasure than statues or pictures; it is the finest of the fine arts. 

— Emerson. 



CHAPTER XLI 

CHOICE OF ADJECTIVES 

The adjectives in the following exercises are often misused. 
Find out from a dictionary their exact meaning, and be care- 
ful to use them in their proper sense. 

EXERCISE 82 

Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with appro- 
priate words from this list: — 

handsome beautiful splendid fine 

pretty lovely elegant grand 

1. She lived in a ■ cottage by the sea. 

2. The Viceroy was welcomed by a procession. 

3. Niagara is a cataract. 

4. feathers make birds. 

5. Pegasus was a snow-white steed, with silvery wings. 

6. She was a lady of character. 

7. The room was filled with — — furniture. 

8. The executive mansion is a residence. 

9. The view from the top of the mountain is . 

10. The sunset was . 



II. 



We had a sail on the lake. 

LofC. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



EXERCISE 83 



Copy the following sentences, inserting the proper word in 
each blank. Give in each case a reasoji for yonr choice : — 

I. — Cunning, Attractive 

1. What an little child she was ! 

2. The fox is a animal. 

3. The boy eluded his pursuers. 

11. — Dumb, Dull, Stupid 

1. I was with silence ; I held my peace. 

2. The boy was so that he could not understand the problem. 

3. He was too to express any opinion on the subject. 

4. Be kind to animals. 

III. — Funny, Strange, Odd 

1. The sailor had many adventures. 

2. His remarks set the table in a roar. 

3. He was dressed in an way. 

4. Misery makes bedfellows. 

5. The speaker amused his audience with stories. 

IV. — Sealthi/, Healthful, Wholesome 

1. A body contributes to the health of the mind. 

2. Apples are a food. 

3. food makes a man. 

4. He sought for a climate. 

5 The captain was a man. 



REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES lOI 

Y. — Mad, Angry 

1. Be ye , and sin not. 

2. A dog ran down the street. 

3. Paul, thou art beside thyself; much learning doth make thee 

4. This unexpected reply made the boy . 

Yl.— Ugly, Ill-Natured 

1. The man was so that few persons would employ him. 

2. Hans Andersen wrote "The Duckhng." 

3. It is hard living with an person. 



CHAPTER XLII 

REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES 
EXERCISE 84 

Find the adjectives in the follow iitg selection, and state the 
office of each : — 

How beautiful is night ! 
A dewy freshness fills the silent air ; 
No mist obscures, nor cloud nor speck nor stain 

Breaks the serene of heaven : 
In full-orbed glory yonder moon divine 
Rolls through the dark blue depths ; 

Beneath her steady ray 

The desert circle spreads 
Like the round ocean girdled with the sky. 

How beautiful is night ! — Southey. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



EXERCISE 85 



What is an adjective ? Into what two classes may adjec- 
tives be divided ? 

Name three adjectives that are used to point out things; 
two adjectives that express a definite number; two that ex- 
press an indefinite number; two that express an indefinite 
quantity ; two that indicate order of things in a series. 

State the difference in meaning between the and an or a. 
Distinguish between the use of an and a, and illustrate by 
examples. 

Name two adjectives that change their form to denote the 
plural number. Give their plural forms. 

What is meant by the comparison of adjectives .'' What 
are the three degrees of comparison called .'' Define each, 
and give an example. 

How is the comparative formed .-* Give examples. How 
is the superlative formed.'* Give examples. 

What is meant by irregular comparison } Illustrate. 

Mention two adjectives that are compared by means of 
suffixes ; two that are compared by means of adverbs ; two 
that are compared irregularly ; and two that are not usually 
compared. 

Give the comparative and superlative forms of few, heavy, 
amiable, sivift, useful, fierce, niigJity, witty, gentle, good, 
bad, late, little, ill, mucJi, many. 



CLASSES OF VERBS 103 

CHAPTER XLIII 

CLASSES OF VERBS 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 

Point out the verb in each of the following sentences, name 
its subject,^ and tell which word is used as the object ^ of the 
verb : — 

1. Spiders spin webs. 

2. Bees make honey. 

3. Who taught them ? 

Some verbs, like the examples above, require objects to 

complete their meaning; other verbs do not require objects. 

A verb that requires an object is a transitive verb ; as, — 

Birds /n/i/d nests. Henry threw the ball. 

A verb that does not require an object is an intransitive 
verb ; as, — 

Birf)sy?j'. The sun shines. 

In a few instances the same word may be used as a tran- 
sitive verb in one sentence, and as an intransitive verb in 
another ; as, — 

The wind I'lozas the dust. (Transitive.) 
The wind blows. (Intransitive.) 

1 See page 14. ^ gee page 46. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE 86 

Point out the verbs in the following sentences, and tell 
in each case zvhether the verb is transitive or intransitive : — 

1. He shrugged his shoulders, shook his head, cast up his eyes, 
but said nothing. 

2. Each takes his seat, and each receives his share. 

3. We scatter seeds with careless hand. 

4. A tear stood in his bright blue eye. — Longfellow. 

5. A rill of water trickles down the cliff. 

6. The piper advanced, and the children followed.— Browning. 

7. A pair of kingfishers dart back and forth across the bay, in 
flashes of living blue. 

8. Do many good works, and speak few vanities. 

9. We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone, 
But we left him alone with his glory Wolfe. 

10. The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament 
showeth his handiwork. 

11. The warrior bowed his crested head. — Hemans. 

12. But soon I heard the dash of oars, 
I heard the pilot's cheer. 

13. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew. — Coleridge. 

14. In the cold moist earth we laid her, when the forests cast the 

leaf. 

And we wept that one so lovely should have a life so brief. 

— Bryant. 



VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION 105 

EXERCISE 87 

Write sentences containing the folloiving words used (i) 
as transitive verbs ; (2) as intransitive verbs : — 

learn write watch strike ride 

roll see read fly sing 



CHAPTER XLIV 

VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION 

Which verbs in the following sentences form a predicate 
alone, and which must be followed by another word to com- 
plete their meaning ? — 

1. I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance, 

Among my skimming swallows. 

2. The sun is warm, the sky is clear. 

3. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. 

A verb that requires an additional word or words to com- 
plete the predicate is a verb of incomplete predication. 

When the verb is transitive, the predicate is completed by 
the object of the action ; as, — 

War brings sorrow. 

When the verb is intransitive, the predicate is completed 
by a word or words describing the subject, and the com- 
pleting adjunct is called a complement; as, — 

The sky is bh'e. The boy was an orphan. 



I06 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Most intransitive verbs have a complete meaning in them- 
selves ; as, — 

The rsXn fails. The wind blows. 

A few intransitive verbs (as be, become, appear, look, seem, 
and the like) must be followed by a noun or an adjective to 
complete their meaning ; as, — 

He is a sfatesmati. The child seeT?is cold. 

Such verbs of incomplete predication are sometimes called 
copulative, since they connect or couple the subject with a 
word describing the subject ; as, — 

Washington 7aas a patriot. She looks happy. 



EXERCISE 88 

Tell whether the verbs in the following setitetues are transi- 
tive or intransitive, name the object of each transitive verb, 
and tell wliat completes the meaning of each incomplete intransi- 
tive verb : — 

1. He crept softly to the window. 

2. The way was long, the wind was cold. — Scott. 

3. I heard the bells on Christmas Day 

Their old, familiar carols play. — Longfellow. 

4. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. — Keats. 

5. The daffodil is our doorside queen. — Bryant. 

6. The next day Congress took the formal vote upon the reso- 
lution. 

7. Behold the fowls of the air. — Bible. 



ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE 10/ 

8. The fish swam by the castle wall, 

And they seemed joyous, each and all. — Byron. 

9. Open then I flung the shutter, when, with many a flirt and 

flutter. 
In there stepped a stately raven of the saintly days of yore. 

— POE. 

10. The snow had begun in the gloaming, 

And busily all the night 
Had been heaping field and highway 

With a silence deep and white. — Lowell. 

EXERCISE 89 

Write ( I ) five sentences^ each containing a verb of incom- 
plete predication completed by a nonn ; {2) five seritences, each 
containing a verb of incomplete predication completed by an 
adjective. 

CHAPTER XLV 

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE 

Tell in how many ways each thought is expressed in the 
following sentences : — 

1. The governor signed the bill. 

2. The bill was signed by the governor. 

3. A hound chased the deer. 

4. The deer was chased by a hound. 

A transitive verb may represent its subject as acting or as 
being acted upon. 



I08 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A transitive verb that represents its subject as acting is 
said to be in the active voice; as, Columbus discovered 
America. 

A transitive verb that represents its subject as being acted 
upon is said to be in the passive voice; as, America was 
discovered by Columbus. 

The object of the verb in the active form becomes the 
subject of the verb in the passive form. The active voice 
makes the agent prominent, while the passive voice makes 
the receiver of the action prominent. 

Some verbs usually intransitive become transitive by means 
of a preposition, and take the passive voice ; as, — 

He laughed at them. 
They were laughed at. 

EXERCISE 90 

Point out the tratisitive verbs in the following se7itences, and 
tell the voice of each, giving in each case a reason for your 
statement : — 

1. The frightened animal sought the open country. 

2. Our guide had never visited the cave. 

3. The building was destroyed by fire, but some of the furniture 
was saved. 

4. The guest was admitted into the parlor. 

5. The portrait attracted his notice at once. 

6. The petition was signed by a number of prominent citizens. 

7. He holds him with his glittering eye. — Coleridge. 

8. Many interesting discoveries were made among these broken 
cliifs. — Hawthorne. 



MODE 109 

9. Here the canoe was driven upon the beach, and the whole 
party landed. 

10. The farmer swung the scythe or turned the hay, 
And 'twixt the heavy swaths his children were at play. 

— Bryant. 

11. On Christmas eve the bells were rung. — Scott. 

12. The schoolmaster swept and smoothed the ground before the 
door, trimmed the long grass, trained the ivy and creeping plants 
which hung their drooping heads in melancholy neglect ; and gave to 
the outer walls a cheery air of home. — Dickens. 

13. A little fire is quickly trodden out. 

14. The great iron gateway that opened into the court-yard was 
locked. 

15. Nothing interrupted the stillness of the scene. 



CHAPTER XLVI 

MODE 

Find in the following sentences a verb that asserts some- 
thing as a fact, one that asserts something as merely thought 
of or conceived, and one that expresses a command : — 

1. He speaks distinctly. 

2. If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat. 

3. Speak the truth. 

The manner of asserting is called the mode of the verb. 
A verb that asserts a thing as a fact or asks a direct 
question is in the indicative mode ; as, — 

The river is deep. 
Is the river deen? 



no ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A verb that expresses something as conceived rather than 
as actually true is in the subjunctive mode ; as, — 

If he 7aere ill, he would inform us. 
Take heed, lest thou /a/l. 

A verb in the subjimctive mode is generally preceded by 
tf, tJiongJi, lest, unless, except, or some similar word ; but these 
words are not always followed by the subjunctive. When the 
verb in a conditional clause expresses doubt, it is in the 
subjunctive mode; but when it expresses probability or 
certainty it is in the indicative mode ; as, — 

If the law be unjust, it should be repealed. (Subjunctive.) 
If the law is unjust, let it be repealed. (Indicative.) 

In the iirst sentence above, doubt is implied about the 
unjustness of the law; in the second sentence, the unjustness 
is assumed as a fact. 

The most common uses of the subjunctive mode are — 
(i) To express a condition or supposition ; as, — 

If thou be a king, where is thy crown? 

If he wei'c here [but he is not], he could explain the matter. 

In sentences like the last, the subjunctive expresses a 
supposition contrary to the actual fact, and refers to present 
time. 

(2) To express a wish ; as, — 

O that the day loere done ! 

(3) To express purpose ; as, — 

Judge not, that ye be not judged. 

Watch ye and pray, lest ye enter into temptation. 



MODE III 

A verb that expresses a command or an entreaty is in the 
imperative mode ; as, — 

Close the gate. Forgive us our debts. 

EXERCISE 91 

Tell what each verb expresses in the folloiving sentences, and 
name its mode : — 

1. Consider the lilies of the field. 

2. I stood and watched by the window 
The noiseless work of the sky. 

3. I stand upon my native hills again. 

4. Thine own friend and thy father's friend, forsake not. 

5. Return ye now every one from his evil way. 

6. Though this be madness, yet there is method in it. 

7. Turn away thine eyes, lest they behold vanity. 

8. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

EXERCISE 92 

Tell the mode of each italicized verb in the following sen- 
tences, giving reasons for your statements : — 

1. Though your sins l^e as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow. 

2. If you 7C'ere in my place, you would think differently. 

3. If I were hungry, I would not tell thee. 

4. Though thou detai/i me, I will not eat of the bread. 

5. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 

6. Thy kingdom come. Thy will ^e done. 

7. If it bear the test, it will be accepted. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

8. If it bears the test, it will not be used. 

9. See that thou tell no man. 

10. Some heavenly power guide us hence. 

11. Judge not, that ye be wo\. judged. 

12. Beware, lest thou be led into temptation. 

13. Last night the moon had z. golden ring, 
And to-night no moon we see. — Longfellow. 

14. If fortune se7-ve me, I'll requite this kindness. —Shakespeare. 

EXERCISE 93 

(i) Write three sentences, each containing verbs in the 
indicative mode. 

(2) Write three sentences, each containing verbs ijt the 
subjunctive mode. 

(3) Write three sentences, each containing verbs in the 
imperative mode. 

CHAPTER XLVII 

THE INFINITIVE 

(i) Select from the following sentences verb forms that do 
not assert, but that name actions, like nouns; (2) tell how 
they are used: — 

1 . To err is human. 

2. They intend to return soon. 

3. Doing nothing is tiresome. 

The verb form that does not assert, but that merely names 
action or being, like a noun, is called an infinitive. 



THE INFINITIVE 113 

There are two infinitives, the simple infinitive, and the 
infinitive in -ing. 

The simple infinitive is the simple form of the verb, alone 
or preceded by to ; as, — 

They can go. I expect io go. 

The simple form, without to, is used alone, or after a few 
of the most common verbs, such as may, can, must, shall, 
will, bid, dare, do, let, make, need, hear, and see ; as. Why 
not sing? Do sing. 

The form with to is employed in most of the uses of the 
simple infinitive.^ 

The infinitive in -ing, also called the participial infinitive or 
gerund, is formed by adding -ing to the simple form of the 
verb ; as, — 

Learn the luxury of doing good. 

The infinitive, like a noun, is used as subject or object; 
and, like a verb, it may take an object, if transitive, and 
may have adverbial modifiers ; as, — • 

1. To retreat is impossible. 

2. I decided to remain at home. 

3. There is no prospect oi finding the treasure. 

^ To was originally a preposition, used with the infinitive only in certain rela- 
tions. It is now a mere prefix, or sign of the infinitive in most of its uses. As 
this is the only one of the infinitive forms that is distinctive, it is commonly called 
the infinitive. The other forms are, however, equally true infinitives in origin and 
in use. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE 94 

Classify the infinitives in the follozving sentences, giving 
reasons for your statements : — 

1. I like to look on a scene like this. 

2. Let music swell the breeze. 

3. The rain had ceased to patter, and now began to fall with a 
steady determination. 

4. There was no difificulty in finding the river. 

5. But where to find that happiest spot below, 

Who can direct, when all pretend to know?— GoLDSMrrH. 

6. A man has no more right to say an uncivil thing than to act 
one. — Dr. Johnson. 

7. He hears the parson pray and preach. — Longfellow. 

8. As he approached the stream, his heart began to thump. 

— Irving. 

9. But it must be understood that we did not go to see the 
Pyramids. We went only to look at them. — Amelia B. Edwards. 

10. There are two opposite ways by which some men make a 
figure in the world ; one by talking faster than they think, and the 
other by holding their tongues and not thinking at all. — Irving. 

EXERCISE 95 

Write sentences containing {}) simple infinitives ; (2) parti- 
cipial infinitives formed from the follozving verbs : — 



find 


break 


choose 


lose 


sell 


build 


hear 


spend 


meet 


have 



THE PARTICIPLE II5 

CHAPTER XLVIII 

THE PARTICIPLE 

Tell of what verbs the italicized words are forms, and 
which parts of speech they most resemble : — 

1. Out came the children running. 

2. We beheld a horseman approaching leisurely. 

3. The company, seated round the fire, welcomed the stranger. 

4. We sailed by an island covered with large trees. 

The verb form that is used as an adjective is called a 
participle. The participle does not assert, but assumes or 
implies action or being. It takes modifiers Hke a verb, but 
qualifies a noun or pronoun, like an adjective. The participle 
of a transitive verb takes an object. 

A participle that denotes unfinished action is a present or 
imperfect participle ; as, hearing, writing. 

A participle that denotes finished action is a past or perfect 
participle ; as, Jieard, zvritten. 

EXERCISE 96 
Select the participles in the following sentences, state the 
kind, and tell what each modifies : — ■ 

1. I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft. — Campbell. 

2. Toiling, — rejoicing, — sorrowing. 

Onward through life he goes. — Longfellow. 

3. The passengers, warned by the helmsman, retreated into the 
cabin. — LossiNG. 

4. While I lay musing on my pillow, I heard the sound of Uttle 
feet pattering outside of the door. — Irving. 



Il6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

5. Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the withered leaves lie 
dead. — Bryant. 

6. Looking out of the window,'"! saw a crow perched upon the 
edge of the nest. — burroughs. 

7. Yonder sat a tailor cross-legged, making a waistcoat ; near 
him, stretched on his face at full length, sprawled a basket-maker 
with his half-woven basket and bundles of rushes beside him ; and 
here, close against the main entrance, lay a blind man and his dog ; 
the master asleep, the dog keeping watch. — Amelia B. Edwards. 

8. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. — Bryant. 

EXERCISE 97 

( 1 ) Copy from your Reader six sentences containing present 
participles. Underline the participles. 

(2) Copy from yonr Reader six sentences cojitaining perfect 
participles. 

FORMS OF THE VERB IN -ing 
The verb form ending in -ing has four uses : — 

(i) As a present participle ; thus, — 

He hears his daughter's voice, singing in the village choir. 

— Longfellow. 

(2) As an infinitive ; thus, — 

They spent the evening in singing carols. 

(3) As a noun ; thus, — 

The time of the singing of birds has come. — Bible. * 

(4) As an adjective ; thus, — 

A singing bird on every bough. — Howitt. 



THE PARTICIPLE II7 

It will be observed from the foregoing examples, that the 
present participle and the infinitive in -ing both have some 
of the constructions of the verb, but that the participle is 
an adjective in its use, while the infinitive is a noun. The 
verbal noun is similar to the infinitive, but it is more de- 
cidedly a noun, while the infinitive is more decidedly a verb. 
Thus the verbal noun may have an article and be joined to 
a following noun by a preposition, just as an ordinary noun 
may be, but it cannot take an object as an infinitive can. 

EXERCISE 88 

Distinguish betzveen the dijferent forms of the verb in -ing 
in the follozving sentences, and tell how each is ?ised: — 

1. The darting swallows soar and sing. 

2. After standing a long time at the end of the wharf, gazing sea- 
ward, the strangers began to stray into the town. 

3. Coming back we met two or three more regiments. 

4. I had now given up all expectation of finding the road. 

5. One could wander for miles through this forest without meeting 
a person, or hearing a sound, other than the occasional chatter of a 
squirrel, the song of a bird, or the sighing of the wind through the 
branches overhead. 

6. Hark ! from the murmuring clods I hear 
Glad voices of the coming year. — Bryant. 

7. There's a merry brown thrush sitting up in a tree. 

— Lucy Larcom. 

8. But sorrow returned with the dawning of morn, 

^nd the voice in my dreaming ear melted away. 

■-Campbell. 



Il8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



EXERCISE 99 



Write three sentences, each containing a form of the verb iji 
-ing nsed{\) as a participial infinitive ; (2) as a verbal noim; 
{ji) as a present participle ; (4) as a participial adjective. 



CHAPTER XLIX 

TENSE 

Tell what time each verb expresses in the following sen- 
tences, and mention the different forms of the verb : — 

1. I see the light. 

2. I saw the light. 

3. I shall see the light. 

The form of the verb that expresses the time of the action 
is called tense. 

Since there are three divisions of time — present, past, and 
future, there are three leading tenses — present, past, and 
future. 

A verb that denotes present time is in the present tense; 
as, I hear. 

A verb that denotes past time is in the past tense; as, 
I heard. 

A verb that denotes future time is in the future tense ; as, 
I shall hear. 

Besides these three leading tenses, there are three perfect 
tenses, which denote action as finished or completed. 



TENSE 119 

A verb that denotes an action as completed at the present 
time is in the present perfect tense ; as, — 

I have heard the speaker. 
He has finished the work. 

A verb that denotes an action as having been completed 
before some past time is in the past perfect or pluperfect tense ; 

as, — 

He had heard the report. 

A verb that denotes an action which is to be completed before 
some future time is in the future perfect tense ; as, — 

I shall have heard the lecture. 
He will have heard the lecture. 

FORMATION OF TENSES 

Tell which tenses are indicated by the form of the verb 
iiself, and which are made by the aid of other verbs:. — 

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE 

Present. I write Present Perfect. I have written 

Pasi-. I wrote Past Perfect. I had written 

Future. I shall write Future Perfect. I shall have tvritten 

Only two tenses, the present and the past, are indicated by 
the; form of the verb itself. The other tenses are expressed 
by the aid of other verbs, called auxiliary verbs. 

The future tense is made up of the verb shall ox ivill and 
the simple infinitive of the verb expressing the action. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Shall is used in the first person, and will in the second and third 
persons, to announce future action. (See Chapter LIII.) 

The present perfect tense is made up of the present of the 
auxiliary verb have and the perfect participle of the principal 
verb. 

The past perfect tense is made up of the past of the auxil- 
iary verb Jiave and the perfect participle of the principal verb. 

The future perfect tense is made up of the auxiliary sJiall 
or will and the perfect infinitive of the verb expressing the 
action, 

EXERCISE 100 

Point out the verbs in the following sentences, and 7ianie the 
tense of each : — 

1. We started late in the afternoon of the first day. 

2. There is a land of pure delight. 

3. I had now come in sight of the house. 

4. A ship-of-vvar arrived unexpectedly in the bay. 

5. The walls of this most curious and interesting fortress have 
probably lost much of their original height. 

6. Over the sea our galleys went. 

7. The moon had risen, but the breeze had dropped. 

8. A cuckoo's nest is a very simple affair, but it will bear 
close study. — M. Thompson. 

9. Short space he stood, — then waved his hand: 
Down sunk the disappearing band. — Scott. 

10. It is a strange thing how little, in general, people know 
about the sky. — Ruskin. 



PERSON AND NUMBER 121 

11. Other soldiers heard the noise, and ran hastily from the 
barracks to assist their comrades. — Hawthorne. 

12. My heart leaps up when I behold 

A rainbow in the sky ; 
So was it when my life began, 
So is it now I am a man. — Wordsworth. 

EXERCISE 101 

Write six tense forms for each of the following verbs, to 
be tised with the siibject I: — 



find 


break come drive 


forget 


give 


know see draw 
CHAPTER L 


sell 



PERSON AND NUMBER 

Tell how many forms of the verb hear are used with 
the different subjects in the following, and give the end- 
ings of the special forms : — 

Singular Plural 

First Person. I hear We hear 

Second Person. Thou hearest You hear 

Third Perso7i. He hears They hear 

The different forms that a verb takes to correspond to the 
person and the number of its subject are called person and 
number forms. 

The second person singular has the ending est or st in 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

both the present and the past tenses of the indicative 
mode ; as, — 

Present. Thoii plantesf; thou sees<. 
Past. Thou planteds^; thou saws*. 

The third person singular has, in the present indicative, 
the ending s or es and the old forms eth or th; as, — 

She sleeps or she sleepef/i. 

He does or he do<7t or he ^oeth. 

The forms with tJioji and the forms in tJi or eth are now 
seldom used, except in prayer and in poetry. 

With the exception of the verb be, the first person sin- 
gular and the plural forms for all the persons have no 
endings to mark person or number. 

The verb be has different forms for the singular and the 
plural in the present and past tenses of the indicative 
mode ; as, — 



Singular 


Plural 


I am 


We, you, or they are 


I was 


We, you, or they were 




EXERCISE 102 



Write the forms of the following verbs required for the 
subjects I, thou, lie, and we, in the indicative present : — 



draw 


hear 


move 


speak 


sing 


see 


stand 


choose 


hft 


come 


find 


forget 


know 


take 


stand 



FORMS OF VERBS I23 

CHAPTER LI 

FORMS OF VERBS 

Tell how the past tenses of the following verbs are 
formed : — 



RESENT 


Past 


Perf. Part. 


Present 


Past 


Perf. Part. 


plant 


planted 


planted 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


look 


looked 


looked 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


live 


lived 


lived 


give 


gave 


given 



A verb that forms its past tense by adding ed or d to the 
present is a regular verb; as, ivalk, walked; move, moved. 

A verb that does not form its past tense by adding ed or d 
to the present is an irregular verb; as, drive, drove; give, 
gave. 

Some verbs have both regular and irregular forms ; as, 
build, bnilded ox built ; kneel, kneeled ox knelt. 

Verbs that have more than one form for the past tense or 
perfect participle are said to be redundant. 

The present tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle 
are called the principal parts of a verb, since all the other 
parts can be found when these three parts are known. 

A verb that lacks any of the principal parts is called 
defective ; as, — 

Perfect Participle 



RESENT 


Past 


can 


could 


may 


might 


shall 


should 


will 


would 



124 



ENGLISH GRAMiMAR 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 



Present 


Past 


Perf. Part. 


Present 


Past 


Perf. Part. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


burn 


■ burned 


burned 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


burnt 


burnt 




( awoke 
( awaked 


awoke 


burst 


burst 


burst 


awake 


awaked 


buy 


bought 


bought 


bear 


^[bore 


rborn 
( borne 


cast 


cast 


cast 


[to bring forth 


catch 


caught 


caught 


bear 

[to carry] 


jbore 


borne 


chide 


chid 


chidden 






j beaten 
(beat 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


beat 


beat 












cleave 


' clove 


cloven, adj. 


begin 


began 


begun 


[to split] 


.cleft 


cleft 


behold 


beheld 


beheld 


cling 


clung 


clung 


bend 


bent 


bent 


clothe 


clothed 


clothed 






r bereaved, 




.clad 


clad 


bereave 


bereft 


adj. 

i bereft 


come 


came 


come 








cost 


cost 


cost 


beseech 


besought besought 














creep 


crept 


crept 




f bade 
Ibid 


bidden 








bid 




cut 


cut 


cut 




bid 














deal 


dealt 


dealt 


bind 


bound 


bound 














dig 


dug 


dug 


bite 


bit 


< bitten 
Ibit 


do 


did 


done 






draw 


drew 


drawn 


blow 


blew 


blown 
















[dreamed dreamed 


break 


broke 


broken 


dream 


1 dreamt 


dreamt 


breed 


bred 


bred 






1 drunken, ad/. 
1 drunk, drank 


bring 


brought brought 


drink 


drank 


build 


built 


built 


drive 


drove 


driven 



FORMS OF VERBS 



125 



Present 


Past 


Perf. Part. 


Present 


Past 


Perf. Part. 


dwell 


dwelt 


dwelt 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


hit 


hit 


hit 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


hold 


held 


held 


feed 


fed 


fed 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


feel 


felt 


felt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


fight 


fought 


fought 


kneel 


1 kneeled 
[knelt 


kneeled 


find 


found 


found 


knelt 


flee 


fled 


fled 




j knitted 
(knit 


knitted 


fling 


flung 


flung 


knit 


knit 


fly 


flew 


flown 


know 


knew 


known 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


lay 
lead 


laid 
led 


laid 
led 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 




f leaned 
1 leant 


leaned 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


lean 












leant 






' gotten 
got 
-gilded 

.gilt, adj. 








get 
gild 


got 

gilded 


leap 
learn 


[leaped 
1 leapt 
flearned 
1 learnt 


leaped 

leapt 

learned 


gird 


[girded 
Igirt 


girded 




learnt 


girt 


leave 


left 


left 


give 


gave 


given 


lend 


lent 


lent 


go 


went 


gone 


let 


let 


let 


grind 


ground 


ground 


lie 

[to recline] 


{lay 


lain 


grow 


grew 


grown 






hang 


'hung 
. hanged 


hung 
hanged 


light 


nighted 
lilt 


lighted 
lit 


have 


had 


had 


lose 


lost 


lost 


hear 


heard 


heard 


make 


made 


made 


heave 


hove 


hove 


mean 


meant 


meant 


. heaved 


heaved 


meet 


met 


met 



126 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Present 


Past 


Perf. Part. 


Present 


Past 


Perf. Part. 


pass 


passed 


1 passed 
( past 


shred 


shred 


shred 






shrink 


shrank 


shrunk 


pay 


paid 


paid 


shut 


shut 


shut 


pen 


penned 


penned 


sing 


sang 


sung 


. pent 


pent 






( sunken, 


put 


put 


put 


sink 


sank 


adj. 

I sunk 


quit 


quitted 


quitted 


sit 


sat 


sat 




quit 


quit 


slay 


slew 


slain 


read 


read 


read 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


rend 
ride 


rent 
rode 


rent 
ridden 


slide 


slid 


f si id den 
[slid 


ring 


. rang 


rung 


sling 


slung 


slung 


rise 


rose 


risen 














slink 


slunk 


slunk 


run 


ran 


run 














slit 


slit 


slit 


say 


said 


said 




f smelled 


smelled 


see 


saw 


seen 


smell 






seek 


sought 


sought 




[ smelt 


smelt 






1 sodden, adj. 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


seethe 


seethed 






sown 






[seethed 


sow 


sowed 




sell 


sold 


sold 






sowed 


send 


sent 


sent 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


set 


set 


set 


speed 


sped 


sped 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


spell 


(spelled 


spelled 


shed 


shed 


shed 


1 spelt 


spelt 


shine 


shone 


shone 


spend 


spent 


spent 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


spill 


spilt 


spilt 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


spin 


spun 


spun 


show 


showed 


[shown 


spread 


spread 


spread 






[showed 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 



AUXILIARY VERBS 



127 



Present 


Past 


Perf. Part. 


Present 


Past 


Perf. Part. 


stand 


stood 


stood 


thrive 


J throve 


thriven 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


1 thrived 


thrived 


sting 


stung 


stung 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


strew 
stride 


strewed 
strode 


r strewn 
[ strewed 
stridden 


thrust 
tread 


thrust 
trod 


thrust 
' trodden 
.trod 


strike 


struck 


'stricken 
struck 


wake 


' woke 
. waked 


woke 
waked 


string 


strung 


strung 


wear 


wore 


worn 


strive 


strove 


striven 


weave 


wove 


woven 


swear 
sweat 
sweep 
swim 


swore 
sweat 
swept 
swam 


sworn 
sweat 
swept 
swum 


weep 
wet 


wept 
1 wetted 
[wet 


wept 

wetted 

wet 


swing 
take 


swung 
took 


swung 
taken 


win 
wind 


won 
wound 


won 
wound 


teach 


taught 


taught 


work 


worked 


(-wrought, 

adj. 


tear 


tore 


torn 






i worked 


tell 


told 


told 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


think 


thought 


thought 


write 


wrote 


written 



CHAPTER LII 

AUXILIARY VERBS 

Compare the italicized verbs in the following sentences, 
and tell which express their own proper meanings and which 
help other verbs to express their meanings : — 

I. Trees have roots. 2. The leaves have fallen. 

3. It was an ancient mariner. 

4. How cheerfully the week was spent ! 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Verbs that are used to help or complete the conjugation of 
other verbs, are said to be used as auxiliaries, and are then 
called auxiliary verbs ; as, — 

The rain had ceased. 

EXERCISE 103 

Point out the verbs in the folloivijig sentences, and show 
which are used as auxiliary verbs : — 

1. The days are cold, the nights are long. 

2. The sower's task is done, 

3. Some of the men had no muskets, and almost all were without 
bayonets. 

4. The boats had difficulty in landing. 

5. I have had playmates : I have had companions. 

6. By fairy hands their knell is rung. 

7. There was a sound of revelry by night. 

8. The cabin was surrounded by a dense forest. 

9. They know not what they do. 

10. He did receive the message. 

11. His face did shine as the sun. 

12. I shall not look upon his like again. 

13. If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee? 

14. He will not do the work. 

15. Who trusts the strength will with the burden grow. 

16. The mountain and the squirrel 
Had a quarrel. 

The verbs have, do, shall, zvill, and be are used as auxiliary 
verbs with the participles or infinitives of other verbs to form 
tense and voice. They have the following forms : — 



AUXILIARY VERBS 



129 



PRESENT 

Have 



I. — THE VERB EEave 
PRINCIPAL PARTS 
PAST PERFECT PARTICIPLE 

had had 



INDICATIVE MODE 



present tense 

Singular Plural 

I have We have 

Thou^ hast You have 
He has They have 



PAST TENSE 

Singular Plural 

I had We had 

Thou hadst You had 

He had They had 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE 

Singular Plural Singular Plural 

(If) I have (If) we have (If) I had (If) we had 

(If) thou have (If) you have (If) thou had (If) you had 

(If) he have (If) they have (If) he had (If) they had 



IMPERATIVE MODE 

Singular Plural 

Have (thou) Have (ye or you) 



(To) have 

Present 
Having 



INFINITIVES 



PARTICIPLES 



Having 

Perfect 
had 



1 In ordinary speech, the pronoun j)'(?^^ has taken the place of the singular form 
thou; hut you is plural, and takes a plural verb. 



I30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Have as an Auxiliary Verb 
The verb have is used as auxiliary with the perfect parti- 
ciple of a verb, to form the perfect tenses, each part of have 
forming the corresponding perfect ; as, — 

Present Perfect. I have seen 

Past Perfect. I had seen 

Future Peifect. I shall have seen 

Perfect Infinitives. (To) have seen; having seen 

Perfect Participle. Having seen 

Have as an Independent Verb 
When have expresses possession it is an independent verb ; 

as, — 

Birds of the air have nests. 

EXERCISE 104 
Tell zvhether the verb have in the follozving sentences is an 
independe7it verb or an aiixiliary verb, giving a reason in each 
case : — 

1. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. — Shakespeare. 

2. " Have then thy wish ! " He whistled shrill, 
And he was answered from the hill. — Scott. 

3. Yes : he had lived to shame me from ray sneer, —Taylor. 

4. The sun had scarcely risen when the messenger arrived. 

5. Greatly begin ! though you have time 
But for a line, be that sublime. — Lowell. 

6. The things which I have seen, I now can see no more. 

7. The fondness for rural life among the higher classes of the Eng- 
lish, has had a great and salutary effect upon tlfe national character. 

— Irving. 



AUXILIARY VERBS 



131 



CHAPTER LIII 



AUXILIARY VERBS. — Co7itinued 



present tense 

Singular Plural 

I shall We shall 

Thou Shalt You shall 

He shall They shall 



Sliall 

PAST TENSE 

Singular Plural 

I should • We should 

Thou shouldst You should 

He should They should 



PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE 

Singular Plural Singular Plural 

I will We will I would We would 

Thou wilt You will Thou wouldst You would 

He will They will He would They would 

Shall and will are used with the infinitive of a verb, to form 
the future tense. Shall is an auxiliary of the future in the 
first person, and w/// in the second and third persons ; as, — 

I shall pass the house this afternoon. 
You will be too late. 
He will bring the papers. 

To make a promise or to express the determination of the 
speaker, will is used in the first person and shall in the second 
and third persons ; as, — 

I will do the errand. 
I will have my bond. 
You Jiall not escape. 
He shall receive the reward. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Shall is used in asking questions in the first person ; as, — 

Shall I ring the bell ? (The action is dependent on the will of the 
person addressed.) 

Either shall or %vill is used, according to the answer 
expected, in asking questions in the second and third persons ; 
as, — 

Shall you sign the paper? (I shall sign the paper.) 

Will you give me the address? (I will gwe you the address.) 

Should and zvonld, in corresponding cases, are used in the 
same manner as shall and will ; thus, — 

I shall return the book, or I should return the book. 
You will find the tree, or you woidd find the tree. 

EXERCISE 105 

Explain each Jise of shall and of will in the following 
sentences: — 

1. To-day the vessel shall be launched. — Longfellow. 

2. Take care of your spirit and conduct, and your reputation will 
take care of itself. — Hamilton. 

3. You will compel me then to read the will. — Shakespeare. 

4. Shall I descend? And will you give me leave? — Shakespeare. 

5. Hear me, for I will speak. — Shakespeare. 

6. Will you be patient? Will you stay awhile? — Shakespeare. 

7. If we fail, it can be no worse for us. But we shall not fail. 
The cause will raise up armies ; the cause will create navies. — Webster. 

8. All that breathe will share thy destiny. — Bryant. 

9. Choose ye this day whom ye will serve. 



AUXILIARY VERBS 



133 



EXERCISE 106 

( I ) Copy the following sentences, fillmg the blanks with a 
form of shall or will. (2) State a reason for the use of each 
word inserted : — 

1. We go if it does not rain. 

2. you have hot or cold tea? 

3. The work probably be finished to-night. 

4. Whither thou goest, I go ; and where thou lodgest, I 

lodge. 

5. I lift up mine eyes unto the hills. 

6. I find you at home? 

7. He said he not accept the explanation. 

8. I be pleased to hear from you. 



Present 
Be, am 



CHAPTER LIV 

AUXILIARY VERBS. — Conthmed 

IV.— CONJUGATION OF THE VERB Be 

PRINCIPAL PARTS 

Past 
was 



Perfect Participle 
been ^ 



Singular 
I am 
Thou art 
He is 



INDICATIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE 



Plural 
We are 
You are 
They are 



1 The forms of the verb he are derived from three different verbs, now repre- 
'lented by the forms be, am, and was. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

PAST TENSE 

I was We were 

Thou wast (wert) You were 

He was They were 

FUTURE TENSE 

I shall be We shall be 

Thou wilt be You will be 

He will be They will be 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

Singular Plural 

I have been We have been 

Thou hast been • You have been 

He has been They have been 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

I had been We had been 

Thou hadst been You had been 

He had been They had been 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

I shall have been We shrill have been 

Thou wilt have been You will have been 

He will have been They will have been 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 
present tense 
Singular Plural 

(10 I be (Tf) we be 

(If) thou be (If) you be 

(If) he be (If) they be 



AUXILIARY VERBS 



135 



(If) I were 
(If) thou wert 
(If) he were 



Singular 
Be (thou) 



PAST TENSE 

(If) we were 
(If) you were 
(If) they were 

IMPERATIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE 

Plural 
Be (ye or you) 



Present (To) be 
Perfect (To) have been 



Present 
Being 



INFINITIVES 



PARTICIPLES 

Perfect 
been 



Being 
Having been 



Compound Perfect 
havina; been 



Be as an Aixxiliary Verb 
The different forms of the verb be are used as auxiliary — 
(i) With the perfect participle of a transitive verb to make 
the passive voice ; as, — 

I ain seen I have been seen 

I was seen I had bee7i seen 

I shall be seen I shall have been seen 

(2) With the present participle of a verb, to make the pro- 
gressive form. The progressive form represents an action 
as continuing or progressing; as, — 

I am reading I have been reading 

I was reading I had been reading 

I shall be reading I shall have beeti reading 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Be as an Independent Verb 

When not thus used with the participle of another verb, be 
is an independent verb. It may then — 

(i) Express existence; as, God is. 

(2) Be used as a copula, connecting its subject to a word 
or words describing the subject ; as, Life is real. 

EXERCISE 107 
Explain the use of the vei'b he in each of the following 
examples : — 

1. Life is real! Life is earnest ! — Longfellow. 

2. I have been a stranger in a strange land. 

3. The harp, his sole remaining joy, 

Was carried by an orphan boy. — Scott. 

4. Yarmouth was a walled town, and a good part of the ancient 
enclosure has been preserved. 

5. If money had been needed before, it was still more needed 
now. 

6. This was accomplished in less than an hour's time. 

7. Trade with the colonies was forbidden. 

8. Old Kaspar's work was done, 
And he before his cottage door 

Was sitting in the sun. — Southey. 

9. While we were tallcing, a third messenger arrived. 

10. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. 

11. O sweet and strange it seems to me, that ere this day is done, 
The voice, tjiat now is speaking, may be beyond the sun. 

— Tennyson. 

12. The city was destroyed by an earthquake. 



AUXILIARY VERBS 137 

13. The great iron gateway that opened into the courtyard was 
locked. — Irving. 

14. Whatever is, is right. — Pope. 

15. The old stage-coach is at the door. 

16. I stood on the bridge at midnight, 

As the clocks were striking the hour. 

EXERCISE 108 
Copy from the sentences in this lesson (i) all verbs that 
have the passive form ; (2) all verbs that have the progressive 
form ; and explain the formation and the use of each. 

EXERCISE 109 
(i) Write five sentences, each containing the verb he itsed 
as an independent verb. 

(2) Write five sentences, each containing a verb in the 
passive voice. 

(3) Write five sentences, each containing a verb in the pro- 
gressive form. 

v.— THE VERB I>o 

Do as an Auxiliary Verb 

The present and past tenses of the verb do are used as 
auxiliaries with the simple infinitive — 
(i) In emphatic assertions ; as, — 

I do wish you would listen. I did listen. 

(2) In interrogative sentences; as, — 

Do you hear the bell ? Did you see the sail ? 

(3) In negative sentences; as, — 

I do not hear the bell. I did not see a sail. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Do as an Independent Verb 

When do is used with the meaning to perform, it is an 
independent verb; as, Do your duty. He did the work 
quickly. 

EXERCISE 110 

Tell whether the verb do is used as an independent or as 
an auxiliary verb in the following examples, and explain 
the use of the auxiliaries : — 

1. The evil that men do lives after them. —Shakespeare. 

2. You all did mark how he did shake. — Shakespeare. 

3. She gave me of the tree, and I did eat. 

4. You all do know this mantle. — Shakespeare. 

5. I do not like your faults. 

6. Accuse not nature ; she hath done her part : 
Do thou but thine. — Milton. 

7. Do not dissipate your energies on trifles. —Hamilton. 

8. Most of the facts of nature, especially in the life of birds 
and animals, are well screened. We do not see the play, because 
we do not look intently enough. — John Burroughs. 

9. Did ye not hear it? — Byron. 

10. A merry heart doeth good like a medicine. 



CHAPTER LV 

AUXILIARY V-E.^^^ ~ Continued 

The following verbs are used with the simple infinitive 
to express power, permission, possibility, necessity, etc 
They are sometimes called auxiliaries of mode. 



AUXILIARY VERBS 139 

I. — Can 
present tense past tense 

Singular Plural Singular Plural 

I can We can I could We could 

Thou canst You can Thou couldst You could 

He can They can He could They could 

Can is used to express power or ability, and is in the 
indicative mode ; as, — 

She ca7i walk. 

He cou/d speak readily in three or four languages. 

II. - 3Iay 

present tense past tense 

Singular Plural Singular I'lural 

I may We may I might We might 

Thou mayest You may Thou mightest You might 

He may They may He might They might 

Maj expresses permission or possibility ; as, — 
You may [_are permitted to] enter the room. 
He may [it is possible that he will] change his mind. 

May is also used to express purpose, or to express a 

wish ; as, — 

Open the gate that they may enter. 
May you be happy. 

Could and migJit are sometimes used as the simple past 
of can and may, and sometimes in a conditional sense ; 

as, — 

I could hear the music. 

The lights of the village yni^ht be seen from the bay. 

He 7night go if he could spare the time. 



I40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

111. — 3Iust 
Must has no change of form. It expresses necessity ; as — 
He must have rest. 

IW. — Should and Would^ 

Should is no longer used as a simple past, but has the 
sense of an indefinite present or of a contingent condition ; 

as, — 

Ambition should be made of sterner stuff. 

If I should begin the work, I could not finish it. 

^The phrases made up of the verbs may, can, must, might, could, would, or 
should, with an infinitive, are classed together by some grammarians, and called 
the potential mode. A verb in the so-called potential mode is conjugated as 
follows : — 

PRESENT TENSE 

Singular Plural 

I may go We may go 

Thou mayst go You may go 

He may go They may go 

PAST TENSE 

I might go We might go 

Thou mightst go You might go 

He might go They might go 

PKIOSENT PERFECT TENSE 

I may have gone We may have gone 

Thou mayst have gone You may have gone 

He may have gone They may have gone 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

I might have gone We might have gone 

Thou mightst have gone You might have gone 

He might have gone They might have gone 



AUXILIARY VERBS I4I 

Would is sometimes a simple past, sometimes a eontingent 
present; as, — 

He would not speak when he had the opportunity. 
He would not speak if he had the opportunity. 

Y.— Ought 

Ought is the old past tense of the verb owe, and expresses 
duty or obligation. It is used with the present infinitive to 
indicate present time, and with the perfect infinitive to indi- 
cate past time ; as, — 

Present He ought to go, 

Fasf. He ought to have gone. 

EXERCISE 111 

Tell how the verbs may, can, must, should, and would are 

used in the following sentences : — 

1. Lives of great men all remind us 

We can make our lives sublime. — Longfellow. 

2. For men may come and men may go, 

But I go on forever, — Tennyson. 

3. He that fights and runs away, 
May live to fight another day. 

4. It may be the gulfs will wash us down ; 

It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles. 

5. Wealth may seek us, but wisdom must be sought, 

6. It is not what a lawyer tells me I may do, but what humanity, 
reason, and justice tell me I ought to do, — Burke. 



142 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



7. ^ They had been friends in youth, 

But whispering tongues can poison truth. 

8. Too late ! too late ! ye cannot enter now. — Tennyson. 

9. How he could trot ! how he could run ! and then such leaps 
as he could take — there was not a hedge in the whole country that 
he could not clear. — Irving. 

10. She must weep or she will die. - Tennyson. 

11. He saw that it would be dark long before he could reach the 
village. — Irving. 

12. If a storm should come and awake the deep, 
What matter! I shall ride and sleep, — Procter. 

EXERCISE 112 
Write sentences illnstratiug the correct use of the verbs 
may, can, must, anight, could, should, and xvould. 



CHAPTER LVI 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB Drive 
PRINCIPAL PARTS 

Present Past Perfect Participle 



Drive 



drove 



driven 



Singular 
I drive 
Thou drivest 
He drives 



[. — ACTIVE VOICE 
INDICATIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE 



Plural 
We drive 
You drive 
They drive 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB DRIVE 143 

PAST TENSE 

I drove We drove 

Thou drovest You drove 

He drove They drove 

FUTURE TENSE 

I shall drive We shall drive 

Thou wilt drive You will drive 

He will drive They will drive 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

I have driven We have driven 

Thou hast driven You have driven 

He has driven They have driven 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

Singular Plural 

I had driven We had driven 

Thou hadst driven You had driven 

He had driven They had driven 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

I shall have driven We shall have driven 

Thou wilt have driven You will have driven 

He will have driven They will have driven 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE 

Singular Plural 

(If) I drive (If) we drive 

(If) thou drive (If) )'0u drive 

(If) he drive (If) they drive 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

PAST TENSE 

(If) I drove (10 we drove 

(If) thou drove (If) you drove 

(If) he drove (10 they drove 

IMPERATIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE 



Singular 


Plural 


Drive (thou) 


Drive (ye or you) 


INFINITIVES 




Present (To) drive 


Driving 


Perfect (To) have driven 


Having driven 


PARTICIPLES 




PRESENT PERFECT 


COMPOUND PERFECT 


Driving 


having driven 



II. — PASSIVE FORMS 

The passive forms of a transitive verb are made by join- 
ing its perfect participle to the different forms of the verb be; 

thus, — 

INDICATIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

I am driven I have been driven 

PAST TENSE PAST PERFECT TENSE 

I was driven I had been driven 

FUTURE TENSE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

I shall be driven I shall have been driven 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB DRIVE 145 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE 

(If) I be driven (If) I were driven 

IMPERATIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE 

Be (thou) driven 

INFINITIVES 

Present (To) be driven Being driven 

Perfect (To) liave been driven Having been driven 

PARTICIPLES 
PRESENT PERFECT COMPOUND PERFECT 

Being driven driven having been driven 

III — PROGRESSIVE FORMS 

The progressive forms of a verb are made by joining its 
present participle to the different forms of the verb be ; 
thus, — 

INDICATIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

I am driving I have been driving 

PAST TENSE PAST PERFECT TENSE 

I was driving I had been driving 

FUTURE TENSE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

I shall be driving I shall have been driving 



146 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 



PRESENT TENSE 

(If) I be driving 



PAST TENSE 

(If) I were driving 



IMPERATIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE 

Be (thou driving) 



INFINITIVES 



Present (To) be driving 
Perfect (To) have been driving 



Having been driving 



PARTICIPLES 
PERFECT 



EXERCISE 113 



COMPOUND PERFECT 

having been driving 



Wj'ite the active forms of the verb see that are used with 
the subject I in the different modes and tenses. 



EXERCISE 114 



Write the passive forms of the verb see that are used with 
the subject thou in the different modes and tenses. 



EXERCISE 115 



Write the progressive forms of the verb write that are 
used with the subject he in the different modes and tenses. 



PARSING VERBS, INFINITIVES, PARTICIPLES 147 
CHAPTER LVII 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING VERBS, INFINITIVES, AND 
PARTICIPLES 

I. VERBS 
To parse a verb, tell — 

1. Its conjugation — regular or irregular, giving its princi- 
pal parts. 

2. Its class — transitive or intransitive. 



Its voice — active or passive (if transitive). 

Its mode — indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. 

Its tense. 

Its person and number. 

Its subject. 



Example i. — A flat stone marks the spot where the bard 
is buried. 

Marks is a regular verb — mark, marked, marked. It is transi- 
tive, active voice, indicative mode, present tense, third person, 
singular number, agreeing with its subject stone. 

Is buried is the passive form of the regular verb bury, — bury, 
buried, buried. It is transitive, passive voice, indicative mode, 
present tense, third person, singular number, agreeing with its sub- 
ject bard. 

Example 2. — The dew was falling fast. 

Was falling is the progressive form of the irregular verb fall — 
fall, fell, fallen. It is intransitive, indicative mode, past tense, third 
person, singular number, agreeing with its subject aew 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Example 3. — I may do that I sJiall be sorry for. 

Shall be, made up of the auxiUary shall and the simple infini- 
tive of the verb be, is the future tense of the verb be. It is ir- 
regular, — be, was, been. — intransitive, indicative mode, used with 
the subject /. 

Example 4. — Be silent, that you may hear. 
Be is an irregular verb — be, was, been — intransitive, imperative 
mode, present tense, used with the subject you understood. 

EXERCISE 116 

Parse the verbs in the following sentetices : — 

1. Have patience with me, and I will pay thee all. 

2. Now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast. — Cowper. 

3. The ship is sinking beneath the tide. — Southey. 

4. I have been young, and now am old, yet have I not seen 
the righteous forsaken. —Bible. 

5. There is a tide in the affairs of men, 

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune ; 

Omitted, all the voyage of their life 

Is bound in shallows and in miseries. — Shakespeare. 

6. The broad sun above laughed a pitiless laugh. 

7. The Americans were sheltered by an intervening wood. 

8. Some murmur when their sky is clear 

And wholly bright to view. 
If one small speck of dark appear 

In their great heaven of blue. —Trench. 

9. I dreamed to-night that I did feast with Csesar. 

TO. We had had no water since our daylight breakfast; oui 
lunch on the mountain had been moistened only by the fog. 

— C. D. Warner. 



PARSING VERBS, INFINITIVES, PARTICIPLES 149 

Auxiliaries of Mode 

In phrases made up of can {could), may {anight), must, 
should, or would, with the simple infinitive, parse the aux- 
iliary verb and the infinitive separately.' 

Example i. — How he could rim! 

Could is a defective verb, transitive, indicative mode, past tense, 
used with the subject he. Run is the present infinitive of the verb 
run. It is intransitive, object of the verb coidd. 

Example 2. — If you were here, I could assist you. 

Could is a defective verb, transitive, subjunctive mode, past 
tense, used with the subject /. Assist is the present infinitive of 
the verb assist . It is transitive, active voice, object of the verb 
could. 

Example 3. — He should have gone. 

Should is a defective verb, transitive, indicative mode, past 
tense, used with the subject he. Have gone is the perfect infini- 
tive of the verb go. It is intransitive, object of the verb should. 

EXERCISE 117 
Parse the italicized verbs in the folloiving sejitences: — 

1. Have patience, gentle friends, I fnust not read it. 

2. One ?nay acquire the habit of looking upon the sunny side 
of things, and he may afso acquire the habit of looking upon the 
gloomy side. 

1 These compound lorms are sometimes parsed as verb-phrases in the in- 
dicative or subjunctive mode, according to their use in the sentence. 



ISO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. Should he go, he could not hear the lecture. 

4. We should be as careful of our words as of our actions. 

5. He could speak readily in three or four languages. 

6. Give me this water that I 7nay not thirst. 

7. If you would achieve a high success, you must think foi 
yourself 

8. If I were you, I should attempt the work. 

9. The guards told us that we could proceed no farther, 

II. INFINITIVES 
To parse an infinitive, tell — 

1. From what verb it is derived. 

2. Its form — present or perfect, active or passive. 

3. Its syntax — use in the sentence. 

Example i. — The greatest curiosity of the study remains 
to be mentioned. 

To be mentioned is a simple infinitive from the transitive verb 
mention. It is present, passive, and depends upon the verb 
remains. 

Example 2. — Form the habit of listening attentively. 

Listening is an infinitive from the verb listen. It is presenr 
acdve, and is used as the object of the preposition of. 

EXERCISE 118 

Parse the infinitives in the folloiving sentences: — 

1. To relieve the wretched was his pride. 

2. Remember that when the inheritance devolves upon you, 
you are not only to enjoy, but to improve. 



PARSING VERBS, INFINITIVES, PARTICIPLES 151 

3. He had the happy knack of starting interesting subjects and 
saying all sorts of interesting things by the way. 

4. Do with all your might whatever you have to do, without 
thinking of the future. 

5. To see is to beheve. 

6. Seeing is believing. 

7. In keeping Thy commandments there is great reward. 

8. But talking is not always to converse. 

III. PARTICIPLES 
To parse a participle, tell — 

1. From what verb it is derived. 

2. Its form — present or perfect, active or passive. 

3. Its syntax — use in the sentence. 

Example i. — Looking upv^ard, he saw the moon. 

Looking is a present participle, active, from the verb look. It 
modifies the pronoun he. 

Example 2. — The ships, ancJiored in the harbor, were 
loaded with tea. 

Anchored is a perfect participle, passive, from the verb anchor. 
It modifies the noun ships. 

EXERCISE 119 

Parse the verbs, the infinitives, and the participles in the 
following sejtiences : — 

I. I rose softly, opened the door suddenly, and beheld one of 
the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could 
imagine. — Irving. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. Let us enter and pass up the staircase. —Hawthorne. 

3. In this way they expected to ruin all the merchants, and 
starve the poor people, by depriving them of employ- 
ment. — Hawthorne. 

4. Let me move slowly through the street. — Bryant. 

5. The country was to be defended, and to be saved, before 
it could be enjoyed.— Webster. 

6. We cannot look, however imperfectly, upon a great man 
without gaining something by him, — Carlyle. 

7. In an attitude imploring, 

Hands upon his bosom crossed, 
Wondering, worshipping, adoring, 

Knelt the Monk in rapture lost. — Longfellow. 

8. The rattle of drums, beaten out of all manner of time, was 
heard above every other sound. — Hawthorne. 

9. Whatever may be our fate, be assured that this declaration 
will stand. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood ; but it 
will stand, and it will richly compensate for both. 

io. You may break, you may shatter the vase, if you Avill, 
But the scent of the roses will hang round it still. 

11. For men must work, and women must weep, 
Though storms be sudden, and waters deep. 

12. The burden laid upon me 
Seemed greater than I could bear. 

13. Modern majesty consists in work. What a man can do is 
his greatest ornament, and he always consults his dignity by 
doing it. — Carlyj-e. 



CORRECT USE OF VERBS 153 

14. The pine, placed nearly always among scenes disordered 
and desolate, brings into them all possible elements of order and 
precision. Lowland trees may lean to this side and that, though 
it is but a meadow breeze that bends them, or a bank of cow- 
slips from which their trunks lean aslope. But let storm and 
avalanche do their worst, and let the pine find only a ledge of 
vertical precipice to cling to, it will nevertheless grow 
straight, — Ruskin. 



CHAPTER LVIII 

CORRECT USE OF VERBS 







I. Lay, Lie 




Present 


Past 


Pres. Participle 


Perf, Participle 


Lay 


laid 


laying 


laid 


Lie 


lay 


lying 


lain 



Lay is a transitive verb. It means to place or put some- 
thing in position. Lie is an intransitive verb, meaning to 
rest. 

EXERCISE 120 

Copy the following sentences, filling tJie blanks with the 
proper form of lay or lie: — 

1. the music on the piano. 

2. The rain has the dust. 

3. He down to rest. 

4. He has there an hour. 

5. She the letter on the desk. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

6. The dog is by the fire. 

7. The workmen are a new walk. 

8. ■ the roots with care. 

9. The gentle race of flowers 
Are in their lowly beds, with the fair and good of ours. 

10. In the cold moist earth we her, when the forests cast 

the leaf. 







II. Sit, Set 




Present 


Past 


Pres. Participle 


Perf. Participle 


Sit- 


sat 


sitting 


sat 


Set 


set 


setting 


set 



Sit is an intransitive verb. It means to take a seat ; to 
remain in a seated or settled position ; to perch or brood, 
as a bird. 

Set is transitive when it means to place something in 
position ; to fix or estabhsh ; it is intransitive when it 
means to sink or settle downward. 

EXERCISE 121 

Re-write the following sentetices, jising the proper verb or 
form from each parenthesis. Give a reason for youf 

choice : — 

1. I (set, sat) in this seat last night. 

2. The hen is (sitting, setting) on twelve eggs. 

3. He had (sat, set) under that tree for an hour. 

4. The gardener is (sitting, setting) out strawberry plants. 

5. Will you Tset, sit) by me? 



CORRECT USE OF VERBS 155 

6. (Sit, set) the cup on the shelf. 

7. The surgeon (set, sat) the boy's arm. 

8. The sun is (setting, sitting) ah-eady. 

9. Five Httle birds were (sitting, setting) in a row. 

10. Who (sat, set) the table? 

11. He (sat, set) in the front seat. 

12. They were (setting, sitting) by the pond, watching the 
goldfish. 

III. 3Iay, Can 

May is used to indicate permission or possibility ; can, to 
denote power or ability. 

EXERCISE 122 

Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with the 
proper form of tnay or can : — 

1. Mabel not sing. 

2. He speak French fluently. 

3. We not hear the speaker. 

4. Who understand his errors? 

5. You- look at my drawings. 

6. The boy said that he sail a boat. 

7. you hear the watch tick? 

8. you tell the names of our most common birds ? 

9. I go home? 

10. I told him that he go. 

IV. Think, Guess, Expect 

To think is to judge, to exercise the mind. To g/zess is 
to form an opinion at random. To expect is to look for- 
ward to ; this verb always refers to the future. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE 123 

Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with some 
form of think, guess, or expect : — 

1. I will about the matter. 

2. No one was able to the riddle. 

3. Do you to meet your friend. 

4. I he did not go. 

5. I your plan is a wise one. 

6. Do you the attendance will be large ? 

7. what I have in this box. 

8. England every man to do his duty. 

V. Stop, Stay 

Stop, to cease from motion ; to come to an end. Stay, 
to remain ; to tarry. 

EXERCISE 124 

Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with the 
proper form of stop or stay. Give in eacJi case a reason 
for your choice : — 

1 . Did you at Chicago on your way home ? 

2. Where did you while you were in the city? 

3. The driver is the car. 

4. Mr. Hunt is at the Mountain House. 

5. Does this boat at the first landing? 

6. Our friends are at the seashore, 

7. The plumber could not the leak. 

8. You promised to at home this evening. 

9. We shall here overnight. 

10. Let us here, and wait for a car. 



REVIEW OF VERBS 157 

VI. Learn, Teach 

Learn, to acquire knowledge ; to ••eceive instruction. 
Teach, to give instruction to. 

EXERCISE 125 

Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with the 
proper form of learn or teach : — 

1. He the child to sing. 

2. Clara her lesson quickly. 

3. The pupils are a new song. 

4. Where did this boy to speak French? 

5. Who you to skate? 

6. We are to sketch from nature. 

7. Take my yoke upon you, and of me. 

8. There, in his noisy mansion skilled to rule, 
The village master his little school. 



his lesson quickly. 



9. The teacher - 


us a new song. 


10. The master — 


— John, and John 1 




CHAPTER LIX 




REVIEW OF VERBS 



EXERCISE 126 

Define a verb. What is a transitive verb .? What is an 
intransitive verb .'' Mention a word that may be a transitive 
verb in one sentence, and an intransitive verb in another. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

What inflections have verbs ? What is meant by voice ? 
How many voices are there ? What does each denote ? 
How is the passive voice formed ? 

What is meant by mode ? How many modes are there ? 
Define, and give examples of each. 

What is tense ? Name the three leading tenses. Which 
tenses are indicated by inflection, and which by the aid of 
other verbs .? 

What person-forms has the verb .'' What number-forms .-' 

How do the infinitive and the participle differ from the 
verb .'' How do they differ from each other .-' Which part 
of speech is the infinitive most like } The participle } 
Mention four different verbal forms ending in -ing, and 
state the characteristics of each. 

What are the principal parts of a verb r What is a 
regular verb } An irregular verb .'' Name a verb that has 
both regular and irregular forms. Name a verb that has 
the same form for the present tense, the past tense, and 
the perfect participle. 

What is meant by conjugating a verb.!* 

When is a verb said to be used as an auxiliary .-* Men- 
tion three verbs that may be used as either independent 
or auxiliary verbs, and give examples of each use. What 
auxiliary is used in forming the passive voice .■* Which 
of the auxiliaries are tense auxiliaries .'' How are they 
used ? 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS 159 

CHAPTER LX 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS 

I. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MEANING 

Point out the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell 
what each expresses : — 

1. Now came still evening on. 

2. Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 

3. Days brightly came and calmly went, 

4. It is a very difficult task. 

(i) Adverbs that show when or how often are adverbs of 
time; as, now, then, to-day, yesterday, early, presently, soon, 
always, often, once, twice, daily, again. 

(2) Adverbs that show where are adverbs of place; as, 

here, there, hither, thither, hence, thence, somewhere, yonder, 
above, below, iip, down, away, off, far. 

The word thei'e is not always an adverb of place. Some- 
times it is used merely to introduce a sentence, in order 
that the verb may be placed before its subject. When it 
is used to introduce a sentence in this manner, it is called 
an expletive ; as, — 

There [expletive] was a sound of revelry by night. 
TJiere [adverb of place] groups of merry children played. 

(3) Adverbs that show how are adverbs of manner; as, 

well, ill, badly, slowly, quickly, clearly, together, so, thus. 

(4) Adverbs that show how much are adverbs of degree ; 
as, very, m?/ch, little, only, almost, enough, quite, too, so, as. 



l60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(5) Adverbs that express certainty or uncertainty are modal 
adverbs ; as, indeed, verily, possibly^ perhaps. 

The words yes and no are sometimes called adverbs, but 
they are really equivalent to sentences ; as. Will you go ? 
Yes (=1 will go). 

Combinations of words used as single adverbs may be 
called adverbial phrases; as, agai^i and again, at last, at 
Icngtii, by and by, by far, in and out, in vain, nozv and 
thai, ojit and o?it, tJiroiigJi and througJi, tip ' and dozvn. 

EXERCISE 127 

Point out the adverbs and the adverbial phrases in the 
folloiving sentences, tell to wJiich class each belongs, and 
zvhat it tnodifies : — 

1. A thousand hearts beat happily. —Byron. 

2. Down sunk the bell with a gurgling sound. —Southey. 

3. Then did the little maid reply, 

"Seven boys and girls are we." — Wordsworth. 

4. Defect in manners is usually the defect of fine perceptions. 

— Emerson. 

5. On right, on left, above, below. 

Sprung up at once the hirking foe. — Scott. 

6. Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship, 

Yet she sailed softly too. — Coleridge. 

7. The world is too much with us. — Wordsworth. 

8. How often, oh, how often 

I had wished that the ebbing tide 
Would bear me away on its bosom 

O'er the ocean wild and wide. — Longfellow. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS l6l 

II. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE 

Tell how each adverb is used in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. The guests withdrew silently. 

2. The tree lies where it fell. 

3. Where can rest be found? 

(i) An adverb that simply modifies another word is a 
simple adverb ; as, He walked rapidly. 

(2) An adverb that not only modifies a word, but also 
connects the clause of which it is a part with the remainder of 
the sentence, is a conjunctive adverb; as, He came when he 
was called. 

The most common words of this class are ivken, where, 
wheitce, tvhither, how, and why. These are also called 
adverbial conjunctions. 

(3) An adverb that is used to ask a question is an inter- 
rogative adverb ; as. Where did he stand.'' 

EXERCISE 128 

Find the conjunctive and the interrogative adverbs in the 
following sentences, and tell how each is used: — 

1. Why are we here? 

2. Some murmur when their sky is clear. 

3. You take my house when you do take the prop 
That doth sustain my house ; you take my life 
When you do take the means whereby I live. 

— Shakespeare. 



1 62 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



4. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion 
of envy dies in me. 

5. Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately 

sprang and stood 
In brighter light, and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood? 

— Bryant. 

CHAPTER LXI 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 

Some adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison. 
A few are compared by inflection ; as, soo7i, sooner, soonest. 
Most adverbs form the comparative and superlative 
degrees by the use of mo7'e and most ; as, wisely, more 
ivisely, most wisely. 

The following adverbs are compared irregularly: — 



Positive 


Comparative 


Superlative 


badly. 


ill 


worse 




worst 


far 




farther, 


further 


farthest, furthest 


late 




later 




latest, last 


little 




less 




least 


much 




more 




most 


nigh, : 


near 


nearer 




nearest, next 


well 




better 




best 



EXERCISE 129 

Write the comparison of the following adverbs : 
last often swiftly next ill 



nigh 



more 



well 



fast 



distinctly 



HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS 163 

CHAPTER LXII 

HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS 

To parse an adverb, tell — 

1. The kind of adverb. 

2. Its degree, if comparative or superlative. 

3. Its construction — what it modifies. 

Example i. — He tJien touched briefly upon the promi- 
nent events of the Revolution. 

Then is an adverb of time, modifying the verb touched. 
Briefly is an adverb of manner, modifying the verb touched. 

Example 2. — I remember, I remember 

The house where I v^as born. 

Where is a conjunctive adverb, showing place. It modifies the 
verb was born, and connects the clause "where I was born" with 
the word house. 

Example 3. — When did he go ? 

When is an interrogative adverb of time, modifying the verb 
did go. 

EXERCISE 130 

Parse the adverbs and the adjectives in the following 
sentences : — 

1. He lives long that lives well. 

2. Still waters run deep. 

3. Welcome her, all things youthful and sweet ! 



l64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

4. Then they praised him soft and low. 

5. He drank of the water so cool and clear. — Southey. 

6. How fast the flitting figures come ! — Bryant. 

7. Down swept the chill wind from the mountain peak. 

8. The door in the mountain-side shut fast. 

9. A wondrous portal opened wide. — Browning. 

10. The tumult grew louder. 

11. Louder still the minstrels blew. 

12. Colder and louder blew the wind, 

A gale from the Northeast. — Longfellow. 

13. There in the twilight cold and gray, 
Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay. — Longfellow. 

14. And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide, 

But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride. 

15. There is nothing like a primeval wood for color on a sunny 
day. — C. D. Warner. 

16. Why stand ye here all the day idle? — Bible. 

17. Oh! what a tangled web we weave, 
When first we practice to deceive. — Scott. 

18. ■ O Solitude ! where are the charms 

That sages have seen in thy face ? — Cowper. 

19. O, why should the spirit of mortal be proud? — Knox. 

20. The rain is faUing where they lie. —Bryant. 



ADVERBS DISTINGUISHED FROM ADJECTIVES 165 

CHAPTER LXIII 

ADVERBS DISTINGUISHED FROM ADJECTIVES 

Tell whether the italicized words in the following sen- 
tences are adjectives or adverbs, giving a reason in each 

case : — 

1. She looks cold. 

2. She looked coldly on the project. 

3. The apple feels hard. 

4. He works hard. 

Be careful to discriminate between an adjective used to 
complete the predicate and an adverb used to modify the 
verb. An adjective is used when the quality or condition 
of the subject is given, and an adverb, when the manner 
of the action is described ; as, — 

The child seems happy (adjective). 
He lived happily (adverb). 

Do not use an adjective where an adverb is required ; 

as, — 

I am very tired (not real tired). 

He is somewhat better (not soitie better). 

She a.n'isv ex ed. promptly {not profupt). 

In poetry an adjective is sometimes used for an adverb; 

as, — 

Silent rows the gondolier. 

Some adverbs are identical in form with adjectives ; as 
much, little, far, ill, hard, loud, soft, fast. 



l66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



EXERCISE 131 



Copy the following sentetices, iiisei'iing the proper word 
f7'om each parenthesis. Give in each case a reason for your 
choice : — • 

1. She looked (beautiful, beautifully). 

2. How (charming, charmingly) she sang. 

3. The sentinel stood (firm, firmly) at his post. 

4. Set the tree (firm, firmly). 

5. The judge looked (sharp, sharply) at the prisoner. 

6. We climbed the hill (easy, easily). 

7. This is an (uncommon, uncommonly) large tree. 

8. The patient is (some, somewhat) better. 

9. It was a (remarkable, remarkably) clear night. 

10. He was an (unusual, unusually) interesting speaker. 

11. I am (real, very) sorry that you cannot join our party. 

12. This milk tastes (sour, sourly). 

13. The boy reads (clear, clearly) and (distinct, distinctly). 

14. He is (some, somewhat) hoarse. 

15. The bell sounded (clear, clearly). 

16. The notes of the grackle sound (harsh, harshly). 

17. How (quiet, quietly) the snow falls! 

18. The speaker did not quote that passage (accurate, 
accurately) . 

EXERCISE 13^ 

REVIEW OF ADVERBS 

What is an adverb.? How are adverbs classified with 
respect to meaning .? Give an example of each class. 
How are they classified with respect to use .-' State the 
two offices of a conjunctive adverb. Give an example of 



CLASSES OF PHRASES 167 

an interrogative adverb. Mention five adverbs that admit 
of comparison, and give the comparison of each. In what 
way are adjectives and adverbs alike .-' How do they 
differ .? 

CHAPTER LXIV 

CLASSES OF PHRASES 
I. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM 

Read the phrases ^ in the following examples, and tell 
by what each phrase is introduced : — 

1. The tree on the coi-nei' is an elm. 

2. They walked toward the river. 

3. He expects to return soon. 

4. We found the boy sailing a boat. 

( 1 ) A phrase introduced by a preposition is a prepositional 
phrase; as, — 

1. The leaves of this plant are glossy. 

2. We heard the sound of distant footsteps. 

3. The troops were marching through a valley. 

4. He reads for information. 

(2) A phrase introduced by an infinitive is an infinitive 
phrase ; as, — 

1. To do good should be the aim of all. 

2. He hoped to 7uin tJie prize. 

3. Crowds came to behold the sight. 

^ See page 27. 



1 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(3) A phrase introduced by a participle is a participial 
phrase ; as, — 

1. Looking upward, they beheld the cause of the trouble. 

2. He ^.^MZXiCtdL., followed by the five faithful workmen. 

3. Having finished the work, he demanded his pay. 

EXERCISE 133 

In the following sentences point out the prepositional, the 
infinitive, and the participial phrases, and tell by what each 
phrase is introduced : — 

1. Strive to be usefully employed. 

2. Having obtained the information, he ceased questioning. 

3. They saw a small vessel approaching the shore. 

4. At last, turning briskly away, she came toward the table. 

5. We are anxious to learn the result. 

6. He was unable to convince this man of his error. 

7. Not one of these men offered to lend his assistance. 

8. Down plunged the diver, and soon rose dripping from the 
water, holding the sea-shrub in his hand. 

9. To love one's country has ever been esteemed honorable. 

10. And out again I curve and flow 

To join the brimming river. 

EXERCISE 134 

Write sentences containing {\) a prepositional phrase used 
like an adjective ; (2) a prepositional phrase used like an 
adverb ; (3) a participial phrase used like an adjective ; 



CLASSES OF PHRASES 169 

(4) an infinitive phrase used as the subject of a verb; 

(5) an infinitive phrase used as the object of a verb. 



II. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE 

State the office of each phrase in the following 
examples : — 

1. The decision of the judge was just. 

2. The house stands on a high hill. 

3. To defer action will be unwise. 

4. He refused to open the gate. 

(i) A phrase that performs the office of an adjective is an 
adjective phrase ; as, — 

1. The doors of the church were open. 

2. He beheld a stranger standing near him. 

3. Listen to the song of the bird. 

(2) A phrase that performs the office of an adverb is an 
adverbial phrase ; as, — 

1. They landed on an island. 

2. He came to inspect the work. 

3. The house stood on this corner. 

{2) A phrase that performs the office of a noun is a noun 
phrase; as, — 

1. To please all is impossible. 

2. We hope to hear tlie speaker. 



I/O ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



EXERCISE 135 



Find the adjective, the adverbial, and the noim phrases 
in the following examples, atid tell hotv each is used: — 

1. In happy homes he saw the Hght 

Of household fires gleam warm and bright. 

2. Religion dwells not in the tongue, but in the heart. 

3. Hark ! I hear the bugles of the enemy. 

4. A lamp was burning in the little chapel. 

5. Rise with the lark. 

6. It was one by the village clock. 

7. The newly elected member went in state to the City Cross, 
accompanied by a band of music. 

8. The doors of the prison closed upon him. 

9. Around the walls stood several oak bookcases. 

10. The edges and corners of the box were carved with most 
wonderful skill. 

11. You must change your style of living. 

12. Point thy tongue on the anvil of truth. 

13. It stands on a mound which elevates it above the other 
parts of the castle, and a great flight of steps leads to the interior. 

14. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

15. Cease to do evil; learn to do well. 

16. Here delicate snow-stars, out of the cloud, 

Come floating downward in airy play. 

EXERCISE 136 

Write (i) five sentences, each containing an adjective 
phrase; (2) five sentences, each containing an adverbial 
phrase ; (3) two sentejices, each containing a noun phrase. 



PREPOSITIONS 171 

CHAPTER LXV 

PREPOSITIONS 

Tell what the following prepositions connect, and what 
relations they express : — 

1. He stood on the bridge. 

2. 'Twas the night before Christmas. 

3. The tree was struck by lightning. 

4. He died for his country. 

5. The eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill. 

Prepositions express such a variety of relations that they 
cannot be easily classified according to meaning. The most 
common relations expressed by prepositions are — 

(i) Place or direction; as, At home; towards the bridge; 
below the falls. 

(2) Time ; as, After breakfast ; till noon ; since morning. 

(3) Agency, instrumentality, or means; as, Killed by frost; 
' cut tvith a hatchet ; lost through carelessness. 

(4) Cause or purpose ; as, Thankful for good health ; he 
votes from principle. 

(5) Possession; as. The voice ^ the speaker; the beauty 
of the rose ; the blade of the knife. 

(6) Definition ; as. The virtue of temperance ; the city of 
Rome. 

(7) Object ; as. The fear of death ; the hope of reward. 

Many other relations are implied, such as nferciice, ex- 
pressed by about ; association, by zvith ; separation, by from ; 
oppositio7i, by against ; substitution, by for ; etc. 



172 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



The words most commonly used as prepositions are the 
following : — 



about 


athwart 


from 


to 


above 


before 


in 


toward 


across 


behind 


into 


towards 


after 


below 


of 


under 


against 


beneath 


off 


underneath 


along 


beside 


on 


until 


amid 


besides 


over 


unto 


amidst 


between 


round 


up 


among 


beyond 


since 


upon 


amongst 


by 


through 


with 


around 


down 


throughout 


within 


at 


for 


till 


without 



Concerning, during, notwithstajiditig, regarding, respecting 
touching, and a few similar words of participial form are 
usually classed as prepositions. 

Certain phrases are used with the force of single prepo- 
sitions. They are called compound prepositions ; as, 
according to, in place of, in regard to, instead of, ont of, oti 
account of. 

ORDER OF PARSING PREPOSITIONS 

To parse a preposition, — 

(i) Name the part of speech. 

(2) Tell with what word it connects its object. 

(3) State the relation shown.^ 

Example. — He goes on Sunday to the church. 

— Longfellow. 

1 With young pupils, the third step may be omitted. 



PREPOSITIONS 173 

1. On is a preposition, connecting the noun Sunday with the 
verb goes, and showing the relation of time. 

2. To is a preposition, connecting the noun church with the 
verb goes, and showing the relation of place. 

EXERCISE 137 

Parse the prepositions in the foUowijig sentences, and tell 
the nse of each prepositional phrase : — 

1. At midnight, however, I was aroused by the tramp of 
horses' hoofs in the yard. 

2. Great turtles came up out of the water, and crawled along 
.on a sandy place. — M. Thompson. 

3. The scheme failed for want of support. 

4. The love that leads the willing spheres 
Along the unending track of years 
And watches o'er the sparrow's nest, 

Shall brood above thy winter rest. — Bryant. 

5. With ray cross-bow 

I shot the Albatross. — Coleridge. 

6. The little bird sits at his door in the sun. — Lowell. 

7. Oil the cross-beam under the Old South bell 
The nest of a pigeon is builded well. 

In summer and winter that bird is there, 

Out and in with the morning air ; 

I love to see him track the street, 

With his wary eye and active feet ; 

And I often watch him as he springs. 

Circling the steeple with easy wings. 

Till across the dial his shade has passed, 

And the belfry edge is gained at last, — N. P. Willis. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER LXVI 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS 

L COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 

Find in the following examples conjunctions that con- 
nect words, phrases, or clauses of like kind, or having the 
same relation to the rest of the sentence : — 

1. Art is long, and time is fleeting. 

2. Games and carols closed the day. 

3. The house was silent and deserted. 

4. You see where Warren fell, and where other patriots fell 
with him. 

Words, phrases, and clauses of Hke kind, or standing in 
the same relation to the rest of the sentence, are said to 
have the same construction or to be of equal rank. Con- 
junctions that connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal 
rank, are coordinating conjunctions. They may connect — 

(i) Two independent clauses; as. Be diligent, and you 
will succeed. 

(2) Two words in the same construction; as. The min- 
strel was infirm and old. 

(3) Two phrases in the same construction ; as, They are 
alike in voice and in maimer. 

(4) Two dependent clauses in the same construction ; 
as, No one could tell whence they came or whither the] 
went. 



CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS 1/5 

Coordinating conjunctions are divided into the following 
classes : — 

(i) Copulative, those that join similar parts; as, and, 
also, besides, likewise, moreover. 

^ (2) Adversative, those that join parts opposed in mean- 
ing ; as, but, yet, hotvever, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding. 

(3) Alternative, those that imply a choice between two ; 
as, either — or, neither — nor, whether — or. 

(4) Causal, those that express cause or consequence; as, 
for, therefore, -hence, consequently. 

Conjunctions used in pairs are called correlatives ; as, 

both — and, either — or, neither — nor, not — but, not only 

— ■. but. 

EXERCISE 138 

Point out the coordinating conjimctions in the follozuing 
examples, and tell what they join : — 

1. The shower was now over, and a rainbow above the eastern 
wood promised a fair evening. 

2. Either he is talking, or he is pursuing. 

3. Through days of sorrow and of mirth. 

4. Be just, and fear not. 

5. He calls on the people not only to defend, but to study 
and understand their rights and privileges. 

6. This lesson is plain, and easily applied. 

7. Their route now lay over rough ground, and their progress was 
slow. 

8. He was interrupted by the flash and report of a rifle. 

9. We know what we are, but know not what we may be. 

10. The time we live ought not to be computed by the numbei 
of years, but by the use that has been made of them. 



1/6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

11. Virtuous and wise he was, yet not severe. 

12. I know not whether to go or to remain. 

13. He does not deserve to succeed; for he will not put forth 
effort. 

14. Give me neither poverty nor riches. 

15. He was small of stature, and slight in frame. 

16. Read not to contradict, nor to believe, but to weigh and 
consider. 

II. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 

Name the dependent clause in each of • the following 
sentences, state its use, and tell how it is joined to the prin- 
cipal clause : — 

1. I would grant your request if I could. 

2. He came, because he was needed. 

3. Be silent, that you may hear. 

Conjunctions that connect a dependent or subordinate clause 
to a principal clause are subordinating conjunctions. They 
denote — 

( 1 ) Time ; as, after, before, ere, since, till, when, while, as. 

(2) Place ; as, ivhere, iv hence. 

(3) Manner and comparison ; as, than, as. 

(4) Cause or reason ; as, because, since, as, that, whereas. 

(5) End or purpose; as, that, lest. 

(6) Condition ; as, if, unless, except. 

(7) Concession; as, though, althougJi. 

Certain phrases performing the office of conjunctions 
may be called compound conjunctions ; as, but also, as well 
as, as if, as thoitgh. 



HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS 1/7 

EXERCISE 139 

Fi7id the subordinating conjunctions in the following sen- 
tences, and tell what each denotes : — 



I have not seen him since he was a child. 



He labored earnestly that abuses might be reformed. 

Love not sleep lest thou come to poverty. 

Live well that you may die well. 

His stories are good to hear at night, because we can 
dream about them asleep ; and good in the morning, too, be- 
cause then we can dream about them awake. 

6. Now had the season returned when the nights grow colder 
and longer. 

7. A clownish air is but a small defect ; yet it is enough to 
make a man disagreeable. 

8. Since we must fight it through, why not put ourselves in a 
state to enjoy all the benefit of victory, if we gain the victory. 

9. A great black cloud had been gathering in the sky for 
some time, past, although it had not overspread the sun. 

10. Speak clearly, if you would be understood. 

CHAPTER LXVII 

HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS 

To parse a conjunction, tell — 

1. Its class — coordinating or subordinating. 

2. Its use — state what it connects. 

Example i. — Hear me for my cause, and be silent, 
that you may hear. 



1/8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

1. A fid is a coordinating conjunction, connecting the two in- 
dependent members, "Hear me for my cause," and "be silent, 
that you may hear." 

2. That is a subordinating conjunction, connecting the subor- 
dinate clause, "you may hear," to the principal clause, "be silent." 

Example 2. — Is the night chilly and dark } 

I. And is a coordinating conjunction, connecting the two 
adjectives chilly and dark. 

EXERCISE 140 

Parse the conjunctions in the follotving sentences : — 

1. My hair is gray, but not with years, 

Nor grew it white 
In a single night, 
As men's have grown from sudden fears : 
My limbs are bowed, though not with toil, 

But rusted with a vile repose, 
For they have been a dungeon's spoil. 
And mine has been the fate of those 
To whom the goodly earth and air 
Are banned, and barred, — forbidden fare. — Byron. 

2. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 

A youth to fortune and to fame unknown.- Gray. 

3. They deserved respect ; for they were good men as well as 
brave. — Hawthorne. 

4. On either side the river lie 

Long fields of barley and of rye.— Tennyson. 

5. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. — Shakespeare. 



REVIEW OF CONJUNCTIONS 1 79 

6. As Csesar loved me, I wept for him ; as he was fortunate, 
I rejoice at it ; as he was valiant, I honor him : but, as he was 
ambitious, I slew him. — Shakespeare. 

7. The test of a people is not in its occupations, but in its 
heroes. — T. W. Higginson. 

8. Then they praised him, soft and low, 

Called him worthy to be loved, 
Truest friend and noblest foe ; 

Yet she neither spoke nor move J.— Tennyson. 

9. One whole month elapsed before I knew the fate of the 
cargo. 

10. The works of Milton cannot be comprehended or enjoyed, 
unless the mind of the reader cooperate with that of the writer. 
He does not paint a finished picture, or play for a mere passive 
listener. He sketches, and leaves others to fill up the outline. 
He strikes the key-note, and expects his hearer to make out the 
melody. — Macaulay. 

EXERCISE 141 

REVIEW OF CONJUNCTIONS 

Name the two leading classes of conjunctions. What is 
a coordinating conjunction .-■ What is meant by words, 
phrases, or clauses of equal rank .'* Illustrate. Tell how 
coordinating conjunctions are classified, and give examples 
of each class. 

What is a subordinating conjunction ? Mention some of 
the different relations denoted by subordinating conjunc- 
tions, and give illustrations. 

What are correlative conjunctions.^ Give examples. 

Mention phrases that are used as conjunctions. 



l8o ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER LXVIII 

INTERJECTIONS 

Since interjections are not grammatically related to the 
other words in a sentence, the parsing of an interjection con- 
sists in simply naming the part of speech. 

EXERCISE 142 

Name the interjections in tJie fo/loiuing sentences, and tell 
wJiat feeling each expresses : — 

1. Ah ! what would the world be to us 

If the children were no mofe? — Longfellow. 

2. Hark ! let me listen for the swell of the surf. 

3. Ah ! what a weary race my feet have run. — Warton. 

4. Oh ! wherefore come ye forth, in triumph from the north? 

— Macaulay. 

5. Alas ! I have nor hope nor health. — Shelley. 

6. And, lo ! from far, as on they pressed, there came a glittering 
band. — Hemans. 

7. Hark ! hark ! the lark at heaven's gate sings. 

8. Ha ! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? 

9. For, lo ! the blazing, rocking roof 

Down, down in thunder falls ! — Horace Smith. 

10. Heigh ho ! daisies and buttercups, 
Fair yellow daffodils, stately and tall. 

11. O joy ! that in our embers 

Is something that doth live. — Wordsworth. 



Th: 



ART 1 HIRD 



SYNTAX 



Syntax treats of the grammatical relations of words in 
sentences. The relation that any part of speech bears to 
other parts of speech in the same sentence is called its 
syntax or construction. 

CHAPTER LXIX 

CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 

I. NOMINATIVE CASE 

Subject Nominative 

(i) The subject of a verb is in the nominative case; as, — 

Man is mortal. / sprang to the stirrup. 

EXERCISE 143 

Find the subject no^ninatives in the following examples, and 
tell of what verb each is a subject : — 

1. The fleet consisted of nine vessels. 

2. Up flew the windows afl. 

3. Facts always yield the phice of honor in conversation, to 
thoughts about facts. 

4. Not a ripple stirred on the glassy surface of the lake. 



1 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

5. Somewhat back from the village street 

Stands the old-fashioned country-seat. 
Across its antique portico 
Tall poplar-trees their shadows throw ; 
And from its station in the hall 
An ancient timepiece says to all, — 
" Forever — never ! 
Never — forever ! " —Longfellow. 

Predicate Nominative 

(2) A noun or pronoun used to complete the predicate after 
certain intransitive verbs, such as be, become, appear, look, and 
seem, and after the passive forms of a few transitive verbs 
like make, call, choose, and elect is in the nominative case; 

as, — 

Webster was a statesman. He was elected seyiator. 

The noun that completes the predicate in this manner refers 
to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb, and 
is in the same case as the w^ord explained. It is called a 
predicate noun or a predicate nominative.^ 

Infinitives and participles of verbs of the class just named 
take the same case after them as before them, when both 
nouns or pronouns denote the same person or thing ; as, — 

It was thought to be he. We asked him to be our leader. 
He, being a foreigner, was ineligible to office. 

^ The noun or adjective that completes the predicate in this manner is 
sometimes called an attribute coniplemetit. 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 1 83 

EXERCISE 144 

Parse the nouns in the folloiving examples, and tell to 
what each predicate nominative refers: — 

1. Every man's task is his life-preserver. 

2. I am monarch of all I survey. 

3. Our fortress is the good greenwood, 

Our tent the cypress-tree. 

4. Toil is the condition of our being. 

5. The colonists were now no longer freemen ; they were entirely 
dependent on the King's pleasure. 

6. He was one of the ablest seamen of his time, and was a 
favorite with his sailors. 

7. Every day is a little hfe ; and our whole life is but a day 
repeated. 

8. Each tree is an individual and has a personal character. 

Apposition 

A noun or pronoun added to another noun or pronoun 
to explain its meaning is called an appositive, or is said to 
be in apposition with the word explained. 

(3) An appositive is in the same case as the word explained; 

as, — 

Motley, the htstoriufi, was an American. (Nominative case.) 
We met your brother, the general. (Objective case.) 
Have you seen Gibson, the artisfs} drawings? (Possessive 
case.) 

^ See page 50. 



1 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



EXERCISE 145 



Find the appositives in the following examples, state the 
case of each, and tell why it is in that case : — 

1. Spenser, the poet, lived in the time of Queen Ehzabeth. 

2. The tiger, an animal equal to the lion in size, is a native 
of Asia. 

3. He went to his old resort, the village inn. 

4. These gay idlers, the butterflies, 
Broke, to-day, from their winter shroud. 

5. Samuel Adams, the distinguished patriot, died in 1803. 

6. An ancient clock, that important article of cottage furniture, 
ticked on the opposite side of the room. 

7. The harp, his sole remaining joy. 
Was carried by an orphan boy. 

8. My friend. Sir Roger, being a good churchman, has beauti- 
fied the inside of his church with several texts of his own choosing. 

Nominative Absolute 

(4) A noun or pronoun used absolutely with a participle, 
its case not depending upon any other word, is in the nomi- 
native case absolute ; as, — 

The fog being very dense, we could not safely proceed. 
The mountains rose, peak [being] above peak. 

EXERCISE 146 

Name the nouns and the pronoutis that are in the nominative 
absolute, and tell with zvhat participle, expressed or under- 
stood, each is used: — • 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 185 

1. The storm having ceased, the ships sailed. 

2. Paul preached and taught with all confidence, no man for- 
bidding him. 

3. His calling laid aside, he lived at ease. 

4. The supper being over, the strangers requested to be shown 
to their place of repose. 

5. But the lark is so brimful of gladness and love 
The green fields below him, the blue sky above. 

— Coleridge. 

Nominative of Address 

(5) A noun used to name a person or thing addressed is 
in the nominaiiva case of address ; as, — 

Watchma7i, tell us of the night. 
O grave, where is thy victory? 

EXERCISE 147 
Parse in ftdl the nouns that are in the nomi7iative of 
address : — 

1. O Father ! I hear the sound of guns. 

2. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, 

But in ourselves, that we are underlings. —Shakespeare. 

3. Veterans ! you are the remnant of many a well-fought 
field. — Webster. 

4. Oh Life! I breathe thee in the breeze. — Bryant. 

5. Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up to such 
a sudden flood of mutiny. —Shakespeare. 

EXERCISE 148 
Write sentences illustrating five different constructions of 
a noun in the nominative case. 



l86 ■ ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

11. POSSESSIVE CASE 

Possessive Modifier 

A noun or pronoun used as a possessive modifier is in the 
possessive case ; as, — 

A friend should bear his friend'' s infirmities. 

The noun denoting the thing possessed is sometimes 
omitted ; as, — 

Our first visit in Rome was to St. Peter's. 

When two nouns in the possessive case are in appo- 
sition, only the noun immediately preceding the modified 
term, expressed or understood, takes the possessive sign ; 

as, — 

For thy servant David's sake. 

For the queeti's sake, his sister. — Byron. 

EXERCISE 149 
Parse the nouns in the following examples : — 

1. The village was two days' journey from the sea. 

2. Buckingham Palace fronts on St. James's Park. 

3. Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, thy God's, 
and truth's. — Shakespeare. 

4. At a little distance from Sir Roger's house, among the 
ruins of an old abbey, there is a long walk of aged elms, which 
are shot up so very high, that, when one passes under them, the 
rooks and crows that rest upon the tops of them seem to be 
cawing in another region. — Addison. 

5. There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, 

The village preacher's modest mansion rose. — GotcsMiTH. 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 1 87 

6. We have no bird whose song will match the nightingale's 
in compass, none whose note is so rich as that of the European 
blackbird ; but for mere rapture I have never heard the bobolink's 
rival. — Lowell. 

III. OBJECTIVE CASE 

Direct Object 

(i) A noun or pronoun used as the direct object^ of a 
transitive verb (or of its participles or infinitives) is in the 
objective case ; as, — 

Choose the timbers with greatest care. 
The pillars supporting the roof are strong. 
I come to bury Ccesar, not to praise him. 

EXERCISE 150 

Fijid in the following examples tJie nouns and the pronouns 
that are used as direct objects, and tell of what each is the 
object : — 

I . One of the favorite themes of boasting with the Squire, is the 
noble trees on his estate, which, in truth, has some of the finest that 
I have seen in England. There is something august and solemn in 
the great avenues of stately oaks that gather their branches together 
high in air, and seem to reduce the pedestrians beneath them to 
mere pygmies. "x\n avenue of oaks or elms," the Squire observes, 
" is the true colonnade that should lead to a gentleman's house. As 
to stone and marble, any one can rear them at once — they are the 
work of the day ; but commend me to the colonnades that have 
grown old and great with the family, and tell by their grandeur how 
long the family has endured." . . . 

^ See page 46. 



1 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

It is with great difficulty that the Squire can ever be brought to 
have any tree cut down on his estate. To some he looks with rever- 
ence, as having been planted by his ancestors ; to others with a kind 
of paternal affection, as having been planted by himself; and he feels 
a degree of awe in bringing down, with a few strokes of the axe, 
what it has cost centuries to build up. — Irving, Bracebridge Hall. 

Object of Preposition 
(2) A noun or pronoun used as the object ^ of a preposition 
is in the objective case ; as, — 

We spoke not a word of sorrow. 
Come with jne. 

EXERCISE 151 

Select the objects of the prepositions in the following selection, 
and tell to wJiat ivords they are joined by the prepositions : — 
Shut in from all the world without, 
We sat the clean-winged hearth about, 
Content to let the north-wind roar 
In baffled rage at pane and door. 
While the red logs before us beat 
The frost-line back with tropic heat ; 
And ever, when a louder blast 
Shook beam and rafter as it passed, 
The merrier up its roaring draught 
The great throat of the chimney laughed, 
The house-dog on his paws outspread 
Laid to the fire his drowsy head, 
The cat's dark silhouette on the wall 
A couchant tiger's seemed to fall ; 
1 See page 18. 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 1 89 

And, for the winter fireside meet, 
Between the andirons' straddling feet, 
The mug of cider simmered slow, 
The apples sputtered in a row, 
And, close at hand, the basket stood 
With nuts from brown October's wood. 

— Whittier, Snow-Bound. 

Indirect Object 

(3) A noun or pronoun used as an indirect object to show 
to v/hom or for whom or what something is done is in the 
objective (or dative) case; as, — 

He gave the 7?ian [indirect object] a coat [direct object] (= He 
gave a coat to the man). 

She bought the bird [indirect object] a cage [direct object] 
(= She bought a ca.gQ for the bird). 

Usually the indirect object alone is used when the noun 
stands next the verb, the preposition when the noun is 
separated from the verb. 

EXERCISE 152 

Tell which verbs in the following sentences take two 
objects, and name the direct ajid the indirect object in each 
case : — 

1. Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. 

2. Then give him, for a soldier meet, 
A soldier's cloak for winding-sheet. 

3. The sand ridge ran for a long way back into the swamp, 
and thus gave me a safe and easy road to the heart of a typical 
jungle. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

4. I thrice presented him a kingly crown. 

5. He giveth His beloved sleep. 

6. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul. 

7. I made me great works ; I builded me homes ; I planted 
me vineyards. 

8. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 

Objective Predicate 

(4) A noun used as an objective predicate is in the objective 

case ; as, — 

They made him secretary. 

An objective predicate, as in the example above, com- 
pletes the meaning of a transitive verb, and describes its 
object. When the verbs make, appoint, elect, call, choose, 
and others of similar meaning, take a complement which 
describes the direct object of the verb, they are said to be 
factitive, and the complement is often called the factitive 
object. When verbs of this class are used in the passive 
voice, they are followed by the predicate nominative. (See 
page 182); as, — 

He will be made secretary. 

EXERCISE 153 

Select the objective predicates in the follotving examples, 
tell what verb each completes, and zuhat it describes : — 

1. They made me queen of the May. 

2. Few men make themselves masters of things they write or 
speak. 

3. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 191 

4. And Simon he surnamed Peter. 

5. Time makes the worst enemies friends. 

6. And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called 
Night. 

Adverbial Objective 

(5) A noun used adverbially to modify a verb, an adjective, 
or an adverb, by denoting time, distance, weight, value, etc., 
is an adverbial object, and is said to be in the objective case, 
adverbially ; as, — ■ 

He held the office three years. 
The walk is three feet wide. 
Do not remain a mouient longer. 

EXERCISE 154 

Find the adverbial objects, and tell ivhat each modifies : — 

1. An hour they sat in counsel. — Browning. 

2. My little ones kissed me a thousand times o'er. — Campbell. 

3. I therefore walked back by the horseway, which was five 
miles round. — Goldsmith. 

4. So all night long the storm roared on. — Whittier. 

5. And a good south wind sprung up behind; 

The Albatross did follow. 
And every day, for food or play, 

Came to the mariner's hollo ! — Coleridge. 

Cognate Objective 

Some verbs are followed by a noun which repeats the 
meaning of the verb. This is called a cognate object; as, — 

I dreatned a dream. I ran a }-ace. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(6) A noun used as a cognate object is in the objective 
case, 

EXERCISE 155 

Name the cognate objectives in the following examples, 
and tell how each is used: — 

1. I have fought a good fight. 

2. Behold, I dream a dream of good. 

3. He sleeps the sleep of the just. 

4. Let me die the death of the righteous. 

5. Well hast thou fought the better fight. 

EXERCISE 156 

REVIEW OF CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 

Write sentences illustrating six different constructions of 
a noun in the objective case. 

EXERCISE 157 

State the constr?iction of each italicized word in the 
follozving selectioji : — 

For my part, I was always a bungler at all kinds of sport that 
required either patience or adroitness, and had not angled above 
half an hoiir^ before I had completely " satisfied the sentiment, ' 
and convinced myself of the truth of Izaak Walton's opitiion, that 
at7gli7ig is something like poetry — a man must be born to it. I 
hooked myself instead of the fish ; tangled my line in every tree ; 
lost my bait '; broke my rod ; until I gave up the attempt in 
despair, and passed the day under the trees, reading old Izaak ; 
satisfied that it was his fascinating vein of honest simplicity and 
rural feeling that had bewitched me, and not the passion for angling. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS 193 

My companions, however, were more persevering in their delusion. 
I have them at this moment before my eyes, steaHng along the 
border of the brook, where it lay open to the day, or was merely 
fringed by shrubs and bushes. I see the bittern rising with hollow 
scream, as they break in upon his rarely-invaded haunt ; the king- 
fisher watching them suspiciously from his dry tree that over- 
hangs the deep black mill-pond, in the gorge of the hills ; the 
tortoise letting himself slip sideways from off the stone or log on 
which he is sunning himself; and the panic-struck frog plump- 
ing in headlong as they approach, and spreading an alarm through- 
out the watery world around. — Irving, The Sketch-Book. 



CHAPTER LXX 

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS 

I. AGREEMENT WITH ANTECEDENT 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender. 

Antecedents modified by eacJi, every, and no are singular; 

as, — 

Every tree is known by its fruit. 

When reference is made to an antecedent that may 
denote a person of either sex, the pronoun of the mascu- 
line gender is generally used ; as, — 

Each contributed what he could. 

When the antecedent is a collective noun, it is neuter, 
and singular if reference is made to the collection as a whole, 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

but plural if reference is made to the individuals in the 
collection separately ; as, — • 

The army proceeded on its march. 

The army left their camp utensils behind thon. 

EXERCISE 158 

Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with 
suitable pronouns. Give in each case a reason for yonr 
choice : — - 

1. The committee decided the matter without leaving 

seats. 

2. All passengers must show tickets. 

3. Every passenger must show ticket. 

4. Somebody left umbrella. 

5. Men at some time are masters of fate. 

6. Neither would admit that was in the wrong. 

7. Each soldier carried own gun. 

8. Happy, thrice happy, every one 
Who sees labor well begun. 

9. One who would succeed must learn to think for . 

TO. The committee has offered to refund the amount which 
received from the company. 

11. Every man must bear own burden. 

12. The soldiers paused on march. 

EXERCISE 159 

State the person, number, a7id gender of each italicized 
pronoun in the following examples, giving reasons for your 
statements : — 



CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS 195 

1. The house stood among flourishing apple-trees, three or 
four of which are yet standing. 

2. Every opinion reads on him who utters it. 

3. He who thinks much of himself will be in danger of being 
forgotten by the rest of the world. 

4. He was surrounded by a shouting multitude, most of whom 
had been born in the country which he had helped to found. 

5. So the Deacon inquired of the village folk 
Where he could find the strongest oak, 

That couldn't be split nor bent nor broke. — O. W. Holmes. 

6. Few, few were they whose swords of old 

Won the fair land in which we dwell. — Bryant. 

7. That is a good book which is opened with expectation, and 
closed with profit. 

8. Thou art Freedom's now, and Fame's, 
One of the few, the immortal names, 
That were not born to die. — Halleck. 

II. CASE RELATIONS OF THE PRONOUN 

The case relations of the pronoun are nearly the same 
as those of the noun. 

EXERCISE 160 

State the case of each italicized pronoun in the following 
examples, and tell zvhy it is in that case: — 

I. Subject Nominative 
I. Who, of all that address the public ear, whether in church, 
or court-house, or hall of state, has such an attentive audience as 
the town-crier? 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. Few believed the report. 

3. They that have done this deed are honorable. 

4. What caused the trouble? 

II. Predicate Nominative 

5. It is // be not afraid. 

6. All mine are thine, and thine are 77nne. 

7. Who do men say that I am? 

III. Apposition 

8. We all do fade as a leaf. 

9. They love each other. 

10. The singer, she whom you most wished to hear, is ill. 

11. I myself was surprised at the result. 

IV. Nominative Absolute 

12. He being absent, no one would discuss the question. 

13. Thou looking on, I shall not fail. 

V. Nominative of Address 

14. Thou, who wouldst see the lovely and the wild 
Mingled in harmony on Nature's face. 

Ascend our rocky mountains. 

15. O thou that hearest prayer, unto thee shall all flesh come, 

VI. Possessive Modifier 

16. And they whose meadows it murmurs through. 

Have named the stream from its own fair hue. 

17. Two robin redbreasts built their nest 
Within a hollow tree. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS 197 

VII. Direct Object 

18. No one heard him. 

19. Seeing me, the bird flew. 

20. We expect to meet them. 

VIII. Object of Preposition 

21. What to me is fame? 

22. I that speak unto thee am he. 

23. Stay, lady, stay with us. 

24. Whom did you speak to? 

IX. Indirect Object 

25. Give us this day our daily bread. 

26. Pay me that thou owest. 

27. J/(?thinks I hear a step.^ 

III. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS 
EXERCISE 161 

Copy the following sentences, mserting the proper form of 

pronoun in each blank. Give in each case a reason for 

your choice : — 

I, Me 

1. She and found the nest. 

2. He or will dehver your message. 

3. Between you and , it was an unwise step. 

4. The books were sent to him and . 

1 Metkinks is an impersonal verb, made up of the pronoun me and the verb 
think (from an old verb meaning to seem or appear). The pronoun me, when 
combined in this manner with the verb think or seem, is an indirect object. 
The sentence above is equivalent to " It seems to me that I hear a step." 



IQS ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

5. It was that opened the door. 

6. Who is there? . 

7. Is it that you mean? 

8 Robert is smaller than . 

9. He is as strong as . 

10. No one wishes you success more earnestly than 

We, Us 

11. They were as unfortunate as . 

12. It could not have been that you heard. 

13. Let change our plans. 

14. They have greater responsibilities than . 

Thou, Thee 

15. art the man. 

16. Gray-headed shepherd, hast spoken well. 

17. My country, 'tis of , 

Sweet land of liberty, 
Of I sing. 

He, Him 

18. Is coming? 

19. If I were , I should not go. 

20. I that speak to thee am . 

21. You know as well as that this work should be done. 

22. Will you go with and me? 

She, Her 

23. and I will assist you. 

24. Did you say it was ? 

25. We asked to accompany us. 

26. The flowers were given to and me. 

27. Was it that you wished to see? 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES 199 

They, Them 

28. Could it have been that called? 

29. Let do the work in their own way, 

30. No two are better fitted for the task than . 

31. Arrange the matter between you and . 

Who, Whom 

32. did you meet? 

^;^. rang the bell? 

34. ■ do you wish to see? 

35. — — is it' that you wish to see? 

36. do you think will be chosen? 

37. Do you know I am? 

38. I am he you seek. 

39. I do not know ■ • will go. 

40. I cannot tell to send. 

41. It was the secretary wrote the letter. 

42. It was the President they asked to speak. 

CHAPTER LXXI 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES 

I. USES OF THE ADJECTIVE 

Which adjectives in the following sentences modify 
nouns directly, and which modify a noun or a pronoun 
through the verb ? — 

1. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

2. Ring out, wild bells. 

3. The sky is clear. 

4. He painted the house white. 

5. Her beauty made me glad. 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

I. An adjective that modifies a noun or a pronoun directly 
is said to be used attributively ; as, — 

Drowsy tinklings lull the distant fold. 

II. An adjective loosely attached to its noun is said to 
be used appositively ; as, — 

No misfortune, public or private, could oppress him. 

III. An adjective that completes the predicate, and 
shows what is asserted of the subject of the verb, or 
describes the object of the verb, is called a predicate 
adjective, or is said to be used predicatively ; as, — 

Snow is }vhite. 

They set the prisoner free. 

In poetry an adjective is sometimes used for an adverb; 

as, — 

Silent rows the gondolier. 

EXERCISE 162 
Tell how each adjective is tiscd in the following sen- 
tences : — ■ 

1. The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. 

2. Is it where the feathery palm-trees rise, 
And the date grows ripe under sunny skies? 
Or 'midst the green islands of glittering seas, 
Where fragrant forests perfume the breeze? 

3. The fields were green, and the sky was blue.— Southey. 

4. The sea is mighty, but a mightier sways 
His restless billows. — Bryant. 

5. He wrapped her warm in his seaman's coat. 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES 20I 

6. My keepers grew compassionate. 

7. Besides, our losses have made us thrifty. 

8. A single sentinel was pacing to and fro beneath the arched 
gateway which leads to the interior, and his measured footsteps were 
the only sound that broke the breathless silence of the night. 

9. His faithful dog shall bear him company. 

EXERCISE 163 

(i) Write four sentences containing adjectives used attribu- 
tively. 

(2) Write three sentences containing adjectives used predi- 
catively, with i^itransitive verbs. 

(3) Write three sentences containing adjectives used predi- 
catively, with transitive verbs. 

II. AGREEMENT WITH NOUN 

Adjectives denoting one, modify nouns in the singular ; 
those denoting more than one, modify nouns in the plural. 

EXERCISE 164 

Justify the use of the italicized forms in the following 
examples : — 

1. That kind of exercise does no good. 

2. T/iis sort of trees is excellent for shade. 

3. T/iesc trees are too near together. 

4. T/iis style of chairs is not pleasing. 

5. These chairs are not comfortable. 

6. That sort of people will always make trouble. 

7. Have you examined t/iose books? 

8. Books of t/iat class are very helpful. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

III. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS 

The comparative degree is used in comparing two things or 
classes of things ; as, — 

James is taller than William. 
Silver is harder than gold. 

The superlative degree is used in comparing one thing with 
all others of the same kind ; as, — 

James is the tallest boy in his class. 

When the comparative degree is used, the latter term of 
comparison should exclude the former ; as, — 

Africa is hotter than any other contment. 

When the superlative is used, the latter term should in- 
clude the former ; as, — • 

Africa is the hottest of the continents. 

EXERCISE 165 

Re-write the foUozviiig sentences, inserting the preferred 
form : — 

1. He is the (wiser, wisest) of the two. 

2. This design is the (better, best) of the three. 

3. The crocodile is larger than (any, any other) reptile. 

4. The crocodile is the largest of (all, all other) reptiles. 

5. The white oak has a wider spread than (any, any other) 
American tree. 

6. The pine contains a greater quantity of turpentine than 
(any, any other) family of resinous trees. 

7. Of all the poets called Lake Poets, Wordsworth was the 
(greater, greatest). 



CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS 203 

CHAPTER LXXII 

CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS 

I. AGREEMENT WITH SUBJECT 

What determines the person and number forms of the 
italicized verbs in the following sentences ? — 

1. The stream flows swiftly. 

2. Thou art the man. 

3. The new members wej-e present. 

When the form of the subject determines the form of 
the verb, a verb is said to agree with its subject. Hence 
the statement — 

A verb must agree with its subject in person and num- 
ber ; as, — 

I am. Thou art. He is. We are. 

Some subjects plural in form are singular in meaning 
and take verbs in the singular ; as, — 

The news is delayed. 

" Twice-Told Tales " was written by Hawthorne. 

A collective noun requires a verb in the singular when it 
denotes the collection as a whole, and a verb in the plural 
when it denotes the individuals in the collection separately ; 

as, — 

The congregation was dismissed. 
The whole congregation were in tears. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Two or more subjects in the singular connected by and 
require a verb in the plural ; as, — 

Time and tide wait for no man. 

If the subjects refer to the same person or thing or 
express one idea, the verb must be singular ; as, — 

The soldier and statesman has passed away. 
The horse and carriage is at the door. 
Two years seems like a long time. 

When the subjects are preceded by each, every, or no, 
they refer to things considered separately, and require a 
verb in the singular ; as, — 

Each day and each hour brings its duties. 

Two or more subjects in the singular connected by or, either 
. . . or, or neither . . . nor, require a verb in the singular ; 

as, — 

He or she was in the wrong. 
Neither he nor she is present. 

When a verb has two or more subjects of different per- 
sons connected by or or nor, it is generally made to agree 
in person and number with the subject nearest to it ; as, — 

Either /le or / /iaz>e made a mistake. 
You or /le is right. 

Or, better, the construction of the sentence may be 
changed. Thus — 

Either he /las made a mistake or I /lave. 
You are right or he is. 



CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS 205 

EXERCISE 166 

State the person and tJie nninber of each italicized verb in 
the following sejttence, and tell tvJiy these forms are used : — 

1. The difficulties 7vere all over now, and everything was 
settled. 

2. A little fire is quickly trodden out. 

3. Delicacy and brilliancy characterize nearly all the California 
flowers. 

4. The derivation of these words is uncertain. 

5. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 

6. Neither the secretary nor the treasurer was present. 

7. The army is needed for the defence of the country. 

8. How does such a loose pile of sticks maintain its place 
during a heavy wind ? 

9. A hundred eager fancies and busy hopes keep him awake. 

10. The council were divided in their opinions. 

11. Slow and sure comes up the golden year. 

12. Either ability or inclination was wanting. 

13. Let us hold fast the great truth that the people ar«. 
responsible. 

14. A word or an epithet paints a whole scene. 

15. The saint, the father, and the husband /mv^\ — Burns. 

16. Seasons return, but not to me returns 

Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn. —Milton. 

EXERCISE 167 

(i) Write three sentences in each of zvhicJi the verb has 
two or more singular subjects connected by and. 

(2) Write three sentences in each of zvhich the verb has 
two of more singular subjects connected by or or nor. 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(3) Write two sentences in each of ivhich the subject is a 
collective noun denotitig the collection as a whole. 

(4) Write two sentences in each of which the subject is a 
collective 7ioun denoting the individuals in the collection 
separately. 

II. SEQUENCE OF TENSES 

The tense forms of verbs in subordinate clauses must 

correspond to the tense forms used in the principal clauses; 

as, — 

I hope you can come. 

I hoped you could come. 

He does this that you may see. 

He did this that you might see. 

He says that the work shall be done. 

He said that the work should be done. 

Verbs like hope, expect, intend, referring to future acts, 
are followed by the present infinitive ; as, — 

I intended to visit the museum. 
We expected to remain longer. 
I had intended to visit the museum. 
We had expected to remain longer. 

EXERCISE 168 

Justify the use of the italicized tense forms in the fol- 
lowifig examples : — 

1. She walks that she may retain her health. 

2. He will tell you that he will do his best. 

3. He said that he would give an early reply. 

4. We have done no more than it was our duty to do. 

5. They expected to see us. 



CONSTRUCTION OF INFINITIVES 20/ 

6. She seemed to feel the motion of the vessel. 

7. He appeared to have seen better days. 

8. I am glad to have met you. 

9. I hoped to meet you. 

10. He meant to finish the sketch. 

CHAPTER LXXIII 

CONSTRUCTION OF INFINITIVES 

The chief constructions of the infinitives, including those 
already given, are the following : — 

I. The simple infinitive, without to, is used after the 
verbs, may, cajt, must, dare, etc. ; as, — 

Men must work. 

II. Both the infinitive with to and the infinitive in -ing 
may be used, hke a noun — 

(i) As the subject of a verb; as, — 
To see is to believe. 
Seeing is believing. 

(2) As a predicate nominative; as, — 

To hesitate is to fail. 
Begging is not serving. 

(3) As the object of a transitive verb; as, — 

We propose to call a meeting. 
We propose calling a meeting. 

(4) As the object of a preposition. 

She was about to speak. 

On reaching the door, he paused. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

III. The infinitive with to is used — 
(i) As an adjective modifier; as, — 

There is a time to weep. 

(2) As an adverbial modifier ; as, — 

Strive to excel. 

She is eager to go. 

He is old enough to know better. 

(3) To express purpose, consequence, etc. ; as, — 

He came to assist his comrades. 

(4) EUiptically or absolutely ; as, — 

He was petrified, so to speak. 

To tell the truth, I do not believe it. 

IV. The infinitive, usually with to, is used with a noun 
or a pronoun as the object of a verb ; as, — 

He ordered the troops to advance. 
I asked him to sing. 

In this construction, the noun or the pronoun which is 

used with the infinitive as the object of the verb is called 

the subject of the infinitive. The subject of an infinitive 
is in the objective case. 

A few simple verbs, such as let, hear, make, see, etc., take 
in this construction the simple infinitive; as, Let me go; 
I saw him fall. 

V. The infinitive in -ing, like the noun, takes a posses- 
sive noun or pronoun ; as, — 



CONSTRUCTION OF INFINITIVES 209 

Much depends on Robert's receiving the message. 
His coming was not unexpected. 

EXERCISE 169 

Point out the infinitives in the following sentences, and 
state the construction of each : — 

1. For him, to hear is to obey. 

2. A. sower went forth to sow. 

3. He taught her to see new beauties in nature. - Irving. 

4. I come not, friends, to steal away your hearts. 

5. The sun is just about to set. —Tennyson. 

6. And many a holy text around she strews 
That teach the rustic moralist to die. —Gray. 

7. She heard the birds sing, she 
Saw the sun shine.— Longfellow. 

8. After tarrying a few days in the bay, our voyagers weighed 
anchor, to explore a mighty river which emptied into the bay. 

9. And fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 

10. I did send to you for gold to pay my legions. —Shakespeare. 

11. Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star ? — Coleridge. 

12. Upon the landlord's leaving the room, I could not avoid 
expressing my concern for the stranger. — Goldsmith. 

13. To live in hearts we leave behind 

Is not to die. — Campbell. 

EXERCISE 170 

(i) Write sentences illustrating tzvo different uses of the 
siTJiple infinitive zvitJiout to. 

(2) Write four sentences containing infinitives used like 
nouns. 



2IO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(3) Write two sentences containing infinitives used like 
adjectives. 

(4) Write three sentences containing infinitives tised like 
adverbs. 

CHAPTER LXXIV 

CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES 

Participles modify nouns or pronouns. They may be 
used — 

I. Attributively ; as, — 

The rising sun hides the stars. 

II. Appositively, usually equivalent to an implied clause; 

as, — 

Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

III. Predicatively ; as, — 

Here it runs sparkling. (Modifying the subject.) 
He kept us waiting. (Modifying the object.) 

IV. Absolutely ; as, — 

The service having closed, we left the church. 

EXERCISE 171 

Parse the participles and the infinitives in the following 
sentences : — 

1. As we stood waiting on the platform, a telegraphic message 
was handed in silence to my companion.— Holmes. 

2. An uprooted tree came drifting along the current, and 
became entangled among the rocks. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES 211 

3. "Ah!" cried he, drawing back in surprise. 

4. The turban folded about his head 

Was daintily wrought of the palm-leaf braid. 

5. At each corner of the building is an octagon tower, sur- 
mounted by a gilt ball and weathercock. — Irving. 

6. All the stories of ghosts and goblins that he had heard in 
the afternoon, now came crowding upon his recollection. 

7. I saw you sitting in the house, and I no longer there. 

8. The snow fell hissing in the brine. 

And the billows frothed like yeast. — Longfellow. 

9. Upon his advancing toward me with a whisper, I expected 
to hear some secret piece of news. —Addison. 

10. A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of 
silver. — Bible. 

11. His father, being at the warehouse, did not yet know of 
the accident. — George Eliot. 

12. The wind having failed at sunset, the crew set to work 
with a will. 

13. Here is a good place to test the qualities of a book as an 
out-door companion. 

14. There is not wind enough to twirl 
The one red leaf, the last of its clan, 
That dances as often as dance it can, 
Hanging so light, and hanging so high. 

On the topmost twig that looks up at the sky. — Coleridge. 

1-5. The talent of success is nothing more than doing what you 
can do, well. — Longfellow. 

1 6. To reverse the rod, to spell the charm backward, to break 
the ties which bound a stupefied people to the seat of enchant- 
ment, was the noble aim of Milton. — Macaulay. 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER LXXV 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS 

I. POSITION OF ADVERBS 

An adverb should be so placed that there can be no doubt 
as to its relation to the rest of the sentence; as, — 

We were gfeatly surprised at the result. 
I saw only two trees in the yard. 

An adverb should not be placed between to, the sign of 
an infinitive, and the infinitive itself, unless this arrange- 
ment would add to the clearness or the effectiveness of the 
sentence. 

EXERCISE 172 
Read the following sentejices, inserting the words front 
the parentheses. Be careful to place each word so that it 
will express the meaning intended: — 

1. The two houses were alike (nearly). 

2. I will mention some of the best (only). 

3. He promised to return (faithfully). 

4. Tell him to leave the room (instantly). 

5. There were two or three persons present (only). 

6. I desired to go (really). 

7. They remained three days (only). 

8. We are directed to begin the work (immediately). 

9. We came to look at the building (merely). 

II. DOUBLE NEGATIVES 

Two negatives should not be used in the same sentence, 
unless we wish to make an affirmation : as, — 



CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS 213 

He can not do anything, or He can do nothing (not He can 
not do nothing). 

Sometimes two negatives are used to make an affirm- 
ative ; as, — 

He is not un'aMtA for the position. 

EXERCISE 173 

Point out the negatives in the following examples, and 
tell which sentences are affirmative and ivhich negative: — 

1. I can do nothing for you. 

2. He will never consent to the sale of the house. 

3. I have received no information on the subject. 

4. Neither he nor any one else can do that. 

5. He is not unhappy. 

6. She will not admit that she was wrong. 

7. Neither you nor anybody else can change the facts. 

8. I am not unmindful of my privileges. 



CHAPTER LXXVI 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS 

I. PREPOSITIONS DISCRIMINATED 

Certain prepositions have distinctive uses. Thus — 

^/ is used before the name of a city or a town when the 
place is regarded merely as a point of locality ; in, when 
reference is made to presence within its limits. In is used 
before the names of countries. 

At means in or near a place; to implies motion. 

Beside denotes by the side of ; besides, in addition to. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Between is ordinarily used in speaking of two things or 
classes of things ; among in speaking of more than two. 

By refers to the agent ; witJi, to the instrument or 
means. 

/;/ denotes presence inside of ; into, entrance from the 
outside to the inside. 

EXERCISE 174 

Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks zvith prep- 
ositions that will express the relation intended: — 

At, In 

1. The American poet, Longfellow, was born Portland, 

Maine. 

2. The travellers landed ■ — — Liverpool. 

3. They are spending the winter London. 

4. Shakespeare is buried Stratford Church Stratford- 

on-Avon. 

5. Gold was discovered California in 1848. 

At, To 

6. Did you find him home? 

7. He had gone New York. 

8. She would stay home. 

9. He went the hotel. 

10. I saw him the hotel. 

Beside, Besides 

11. I sat the glowing grate. 

12. the house, he offered us the use of the furniture. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS 21 5 

13. The lady sat down the child. 

14. Only three persons entered the cave the guide. 

15. He stood — — the fountain. 

16. There were six boys Herbert. 

Between, Among 

17. A small table stands the two windows. 

18. The garments were distributed forty children. 

19. He was a great favorite all the children of the village 

20. The birds were hopping and twittering the bushes. 

21. The nest was two branches of an apple-tree. 

By, With 

22. The soil was prepared the gardener his spade. 

23. Two houses were struck lightning. 

24. Many of the early settlers were killed ■ unseen foes. 

25. The bill was signed this pen. 

26. The wall was undermined frost. 

27. The house was entered a burglar a skeleton key. 

In, Into 

28. The bobolink places its nest the midst of a broad 

meadow. 

29. There were five young birds the nest. 

30. Come the house. 

31. He dropped one oar the water. 

32. The children are playing the park. 

33. We were admitted a spacious picture-gallery. 

34. The troops marched the city. 

35. The sweet peas are coming up the garden. 



2l6 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



II. SPECIAL PREPOSITIONS 

Certain words and phrases are followed by special prep- 
ositions ; as, — 



Abhorrent to. 

Absolve from. 

Accord with. 

Accuse of. 

Agree to (a thing proposed). 

Agree with (a person). 

Angry with (a person). 

Appropriate to. 

Bound for or to. 

Conform to. 

Complain of. 

Comply with. 

Correspond to (a thing). 

Correspond with (a person). 

Deprive of. 

EXERCISE 175 

Copy the folloiving sentences, filling the blanks with appro- 
priate prepositions : — 

1. The ship is bound Malta. 

2. My card is different yours. 

3. The soldiers did not complain the food. 

4. She feels the need rest. 

5. What was the matter the child? 

6. The furniture does not correspond the house. 

7. I am greatly disappointed — — the portrait. 

8. Do you correspond your brother? 

9. How does this version accord yours? 



Different from. 

Difficulty /;/. 

Disappointed in (what we have). 

Dissent from. 

Involve in. 

Matter with. 

Need of. 

Opposition to. 

Prevent from. 

Similar to. 

Taste of (what is actually en- 
joyed). 

Taste for (what we have capac- 
ity for enjoying). 



CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS 217 

10. It is best to comply the regulations. 

11. Suppose they will not agree the proposal. 

12. He had difficulty making up his mind. 

13. She has no taste music. 

14. This plan is similar yours. 



CHAPTER LXXVII 

CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS 

CORRELATIVES 

When conjunctions are tised in pairs, the two words mtist 
correspond, and they tnust be placed in corresponding- posi- 
tions in the sentence. 

Some of the most common correlatives are both followed 
by and ; either, or; neither, nor; though, yet ; whether, or; 
as, as (to express equality); so, as (to deny equality). 

EXERCISE 176 

Point out the correlatives in the following examples, and 
shoiv that they join corresponding parts of the sentence : — 

1. He studied art both in France and in Italy. 

2. Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor. 

3. Neither despise the poor, nor envy the rich. 

4. His raiment was as white as snow. 

5. This print is not so clear as that. 

6. I do not know whether to go or to remain. 

7. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. 

8. He is either careless or indifferent. 



2l8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER LXXVIII 

VARIED USES OF WORDS 

EXERCISE 177 

Give a reason for the classification of each italicized 
word in the follonoing examples : — 

AU 

1. All men are mortal. (Adjective.) 

2. All joined in the song. (Pronoun.) 

3. My all is lost. (Noun.) 

4. I am all alone. (Adverb.) 

As 

1. He wrote as (Adverb of Degree) well as (Conjunctive Ad- 
verb) he could. 

2. As he was ambitious, I slew him. (Conjunction.) 

3. They chose him as a leader. (Conjunction introducing an 
appositive word.) 

4. We are such stuff as dreams are made of. (Relative Pro- 
noun.) 

Before 

1. She had not entered this hall before. (Adverb.) 

2. He stood before me. (Preposicion.) 

3. Look before you leap. (Conjunction.) 

But 

1. Fools admire, but men of sense approve. (Conjunction.) 

2. Nought is heard but [except] the lashing waves. (Prepo- 
sition.) 



VARIED USES OF WORDS 219 

3. Man wants but [only] little here below. (Adverb.) 

4. There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 

But has one vacant chair. (Relative Pronoun.) 

Else 

1. Anybody else would consent. (Adjective.) 

2. Where else could he go? (Adverb.) 

3. I have no tears, else would I weep for thee. (Conjunction.) 

Enough 

1. Enough is as good as a feast. (Noun.) 

2. They have books ejiough. (Adjective.) 

3. He has worked long enough. (Adverb.) 

Except 

1. No one heard the alarm except me. (Preposition.) 

2. .1 will not let thee go, except thou bless me. (Conjunction.) 

For 

1. We shall ^3.\l for the boat. (Preposition.) 

2. I called, for I was wild with fear. (Conjunction.) 

However 

1. However busy he may be, he will aid you. (Adverb.) 

2. These conditions, however, he could not accept. (Conjunc- 
tion.) 

Like 

1. This box is like yours. (Preposition.) 

2. He ran like a deer. (Preposition.) 

3. I like to read. (Verb.) 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Since 

1. I have not thought of the matter since. (Adverb.) 

2. We have not heard of him since morning. (Preposition.) 

3. Since the books are here, we will use them. (Conjunction.) 

So 

1. So ended the conflict. (Adverb.) 

2. The library was closed, so we returned home. (Conjunc- 
tion.) 

That 

1. That book is lost. (Adjective.) 

2. That is the cause of the trouble. (Adjective Pronoun.) 

3. Here is the man that gave the order. (Relative Pronoun.) 

The 

1. The way was long. (Adjective.) 

2. The sooner, the better [ = by how much sooner, by so much 
better. (Adverb of Degree.) 



CHAPTER LXXIX 

SELECTIONS FOR PARSING 
EXERCISE 178 

Parse the italicized zvords in the following exercises, giv- 
ing a full explanation of the diffet'ent constructions : — 

Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson, must remember the 
Kaatskill Mountains. They are a dismembered branch of the great 
Appalachian fatnily, and are seen away to the west of the river, 



SELECTIONS FOR PARSING 221 

swelling up to a noble height, and lording it over the surrounding 
country. Every chatige of season, every change of weather, indeed, 
every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues 
and shapes of these mountains; and they are regarded by all the 
good wives, far and near, as perfect barometers. When the 
weather is fair and settled, they are clothed in blue and purple, 
and print their bold outlines on the clear evening sky ; but some- 
times, when the rest of the landscape is cloudless, they will gather 
a hood of gray vapors about their summits, which in the last rays 
of the setting sun, ?£//// ^/(97£/ and /?^A/ Zi?/ ///^^ a crown of ^^ry. 
—Washington Irving. 

EXERCISE 179 

y4// the inhabitants of the little village are busy. One is clear- 
ing a spot on the verge of the forest /(?r his homestead ; another 
is hewing the trunk of a fallen pine-tree, in order to build hi?nself 
a dwelling; a third is hoeing in his field of Indian corn. Here 
comes a huntsman out of the woods, dragging a bear which he has 
shot, «;?^ shouting to the neighbors /i? lend him a hand. There 
goes a ;««« to the seashore, with a spade a;/^/ a bucket, /b ^/^ 
a mess of clams, which were a principal article of food with the 
first settlers. Scattered here and /<^^r^ are two or three dusky 
figures, clad in mantles <?/ fur, with ornaments of bone hanging 
from their ears, and the feathers of wild birds in their coal-black 
hair. They have (^t'/Zi- of shell-work slung across their shoulders, 
and are armed with bows and arrows and flint-headed spears. 
These are an Indian sagamore and his attendants, who have come 
to gaze at the labors of the white men. And 7ww rises a oy 
that a pack of wolves have seized a young calf in the pasture ; and 
every man snatches up his gun or pike and runs in chase of the 
marauding beasts. — Nathaniel Hawthorne. 



Part Fourth 

STRUCTURE AND ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 
CHAPTER LXXX 

STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE 

I. ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE 

A sentence is the expression of a complete thought in 
words. 

The e/emenis of a sentence are the words, phrases, or 
clauses of which it is made up. 

According to rank, elements are principal, subordinate, or 
independent. 

The principal elements of a sentence are the simple 
subject and the simple predicate^; as, — 

The sprifig cofues slowly up this way. 

The subordinate elements of a sentence are the modifiers of 
the principal elements ; as, — 

The doors of the prison closed upon him. 

He that leans on his own strength leans on a broken reed. 

1 See page 4. 
222 



STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE 223 

When the predicate verb is of incomplete predication, the 
object or the complement may be called a modifier of the 
grammatical predicate ; as, — 

The sexton rang the bell. 

My mirror is the mountain spring. 

The independent elements of a sentence are the words or 
phrases not grammatically related to the other words in the 
sentence ; as, — "* 

O father ! I hear the sound of guns. 
Well, were you successful in your search? 
To tell the truth, I was disappointed. 

EXERCISE 180 

Point out the principal, the sitbordinate, and the indepen- 
dent elements in the follozving examples : — 

1. Hark, there is a knock at the door. 

2. Once more he stept into the street. 

3. Early next morning I went to visit the grounds. 

4. The first light dry snow had fallen. 

5. Deer- tracks were discovered on the trails leading to the river. 

6. Many, alas ! had fallen in battle. 

7. To speak plainly, the plan can never succeed. 

8. At any rate, we can make the attempt. 

9. This little brook flowed under a wooden bridge. 

II. STRUCTURE OF ELEMENTS 

When the subject, the predicate, the object, or the com- 
plement consists of two or more connected terms of 
equal rank, it is said to be compound ; as, — 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Games and carols closed the busy day. 
The rainbow comes and goes. 
Learn to labor and to wait. 
Her voice was low and sweet. 

Modifiers may be simple, compound, or complex. 

A modifier consisting of a single word or phrase is simple. 

The ship went slowly. 

We spoke*not a word of sorrow. 

A modifier consisting of two or more connected words or 
phrases is compound ; as, — 

The ship went slowly and smoothly. 

His cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold. 

A modifier consisting of a word or phrase with modifiers 
of its own is complex ; as, — 

The ship went very slowly. 

Here rests his head t^pon the lap of earth. 

A series of adjectives may form a compound or a complex 
modifier as, — 

1. He was an honest, temperate, forgiving man. 

2. Two large ebn trees stood near the house. 

In the first example the adjectives are coordinate, each 
modifying the same noun. Adjectives used in this manner 
may be separated by commas or joined by conjunctions. 

In the second example the adjectives form a complex 
iiiodifier. Two modifies the whole expression large elm 
trees, large modifies elm trees, and elm modifies trees. 



STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE 22$ 

EXERCISE 181 

Point out the compound and the complex elements in the 
following examples, and state tlieir use in the sentence : — 

1. And now there came both mist and snow. 

2. He was not to be corrupted either by titles or by money. 

3. The dove found no rest for the sole of her foot. 

4. An alarm bell rang loudly and hurriedly. 

5. The star and crescent graced his shield. 

6. Heart, lungs, and brain play on through all the thousand 
nights of sleep. 

7. He is our help and our shield. 

8. She heard the tramp of horses' hoofs and the rattling of 
wheels. 

9. This ancient city was captured and burned. 
10. The children march and sing. 

III. CLASSES OF SENTENCES 
(i) Structure of Sentences 

According to their structure, sentences are simple, com- 
plex, or compound. 

A sentence that expresses one thought is a simple sen- 
tence ; as, — 

The march of the huitian tnind is slo^u. 

A sentence consisting of one principal clause and one or 
more subordinate clauses is a complex sentence ; as, — 

Some 7?iurmur ivhen their sky is clear. 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A sentence made up of two or more independent members 
is a compound sentence ; as, — 

/ listened, but I could not hear. 

(2) Use of Sentences 

According to their use, sentences are declarative, impera- 
tive, interrogative, or exclamatory. 

A sentence that states or declares something is a declara- 
tive sentence ; as, — 

The troops marched steadily oti. 

A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is 
an imperative sentence ; as, — 

Make a proper use of your time. 

A sentence that asks a question is an interrogative sen- 
tence ; as, — 

When will the ship sail? 

A sentence that expresses sudden or strong feeling is an 
exclamatory sentence ; as, — 

What a beautiful rose this is/ 

EXERCISE 182 

Write (i) a simple declarative sentence; (2) a simple 
imperative sentence; (3) a simple interrogative sentence; 
(4) a simple exclamatory sentence ; (5) a compound declara- 
tive sente7ice ; (6) a complex interrogative sentence. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 227 

CHAPTER LXXXI 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 

A simple sentence is a sentence that expresses one 
thought. 

L THE SUBJECT 

The subject of a simple sentence may be — 
I. A noun ; as, — 

Birds have many enemies. 

II. A pronoun; as, — 

IVe expected a different answer. 

III. An infinitive, or an infinitive phrase; as,- — 

To delay is dangerous. 

To say nothmg is often better than to speak. 

Saying nothing is often better than speaking. 

EXERCISE 183 

Write {}) a simple sentence zvith a noun as subject ; {2) a 
simple sentence with a pronoun as siibject ; (3) a simple 
sentence zvith an infijiitive phrase as subject. 

II. 'MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 

The subject may be modified by — 
I. An adjective ; as, — 

Still waters run deep. 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

II. A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case; as, — 

Edward's friends were present. 
My opinion is not ciianged. 

III. An appositive word or phrase. 

I, Paul, have written it with mine own hand. 

Hope, the balm of life, soothes us under every misfortune. 

IV. A prepositional phrase, as adjective ; as, — 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave, 
V. An infinitive ; as, — 

His desire to learn is great. 
VI. A participle, or a participial phrase ; as, — 

Having sung, she left the room. 
Advancing cautiously, he opened the door. 

EXERCISE 184 

Write sentences illustrating five different kinds of modi- 
fiers of the subject. 

III. THE PREDICATE 

The predicate of a simple sentence may be 

I. A complete verb — 

(i) In a simple form; as, The sun I'ose. 

(2) In a compound form ; as. The sun has risen. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 229 

II. An incomplete intransitive verb completed by — 

(i) A noun; as, He was secretary. 

(2) A pronoun ; as, It was he. 

(3) An adjective; as. Iron is hard. 

(4) An infinitive, or an infinitive phrase ; as, To see is to 
believe. To see her is to love her. 

III. An incomplete transitive verb with its object — 

(i) A noun ; as, I hear music. 

(2) A pronoun; as, We saw them. 

(3) An infinitive, or an infinitive phrase ; as, She likes to read. 
She likes to read stories, 

(4) Or objects — direct and indirect ; as. He gdcv^John a book. 

(5) And objective complement ; as, They made him treasurer. 
The heat turned the milk sour. 

EXERCISE 185 

Write sentences illustrating three dijferent forms of predi- 
cate. 

IV. MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE 

The predicate verb may be modified by — 
I. An adverb ; as, — 

The bells ring merrily. 
II. A prepositional phrase, as adverb ; as, — 
He went towards the river. 
III. An infinitive, or an infinitive phrase; as, — 
They came to see the paintings. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

IV. An adverbial objective; as, — 

She remained two hours. 
V. A nominative absolute phrase ; as, — 

The war being ended, the soldiers returned. 

The phrase, "the war being ended," gives a reason for the return of the 
soldiers. It is an adverbial phrase, being nearly equivalent in meaning to the 
adverbial clause, *' as the war was ended." 

EXERCISE 186 

Write sentences illustrating Jive different kinds of modi- 
fiers of the subject. 

V. ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES 
To analyze a simple sentence — 

(i) Tell the kind of sentence. 

(2) Name the subject and the predicate. 

(3) Tell what the subject consists of. 

(4) Tell what the predicate consists of. 

Example I. — This old ship had been laden with 
immense wealth. 

Oral Analysis 

1. This is a simple declarative sentence. 

2. The complete subject is this old ship; the complete predi- 
cate, had been laden with immense wealth. 

3. The subject consists of the noun ship, with the adjectives 
this and old, of which old modifies ship, and this modifies old 
ship. 

4. The predicate consists of the verb had been laden, modified 
by the adverbial phrase with immense wealth. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 231 

Or the analysis may be written ; thus, — 
Written Analysis 
Simple Declarative Sentence 



sh 
old~ 


1!L 


had been laden 

with wealth 


This 


1 immense 



Notice that the two principal elements of the sentence — 
the simple subject and the simple predicate — are written on 
a horizontal line, and separated by two parallel vertical Hues, 
while the modifiers of the principal elements are written 
below on lines which are parallel to the first line, and which 
are joined to the parts modified. 

Example II. — Have patience with me. 
Oral Analysis 

1. This is a simple imperative sentence. 

2. The subject (^thou or you) is not expressed. 

3. The complete predicate is have patience with me. 

4. The predicate consists of the transitive verb have, completed 
by the direct object patioice, and modified by the adverbial phrase 
with me. 

Written Analysis 

Simple Imperative Sentence 

X II Have I patience 
with me 



The cross ( x ) is used to show that the subject is not ex- 
pressed. 



232 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



When the predicate verb is of incomplete predication (see 
page 223), use a single vertical line to separate' a transitive 
verb from its direct object, and the sign plus ( + ) to separate 
an intransitive verb from its complement, or a transitive 
verb from an objective complement (see pages 190 and 200). 
Observe the foregoing example, and also the following ex- 
amples : — 



I. How beautiful is night ! 



night ,. is + beautiful 



How 



2. They set the prisoner free. (See page 200, HI.) 
They ,. set + free | prisoner 



the I 
3. They made Edward king. 

They . made + king | Edward 



Notice that the objective predicate (see page 190) king, 
completes the meaning of the transitive verb and describes 
the object Edivard. 

4. He told us this wonderful story many times. 
He .. told I story 



1^ 
times 



wonderful 



thi: 



The indirect object (see page 189, 3, and page 229, III, 4) 
us, and the adverbial objective (see page 191, 5, and page 
230, IV) times, are equivalent to adverbial phrases modifying 
the verb told. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 233 

EXERCISE 187 

Analyze the follotving sentences : — 

1. He reaps the bearded grain at a breath. 

2. Amidst the storm they sang. 

3. Choose the timbers with greatest care. 

4. The leaves are the feeders of the plant. 

5. The heat turned the milk sour. 

6. Time makes the worst enemies friends. 

7. She gave the boy most excellent advice. 

8. Three times we visited this historic spot. 

9. They have forgotten the language of their ancestors. 
10. They ghded calmly down the tranquil stream. 

Example III. — Having obtained the desired information, 

he left the room. 

Oral Analysis 

1. This is a simple declarative sentence. 

2. The complete subject is he having obtained the desired infor- 
mation ; the complete predicate, left the room. 

3. The subject consists of the pronoun he, modified by the parti- 
cipial phrase, having obtained the desired information. 

4. The predicate consists of the verb left, completed by the ob- 
ject room, which is modified by the. 

Written Analysis 
Simple Declaj-ative Sentence 
he 11 left I room 



I the 
Having obtained | information 



I desired 
I the 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Study also the following examples : — 

I. The war being ended, the soldiers returned. (See page 230, V.) 
soldiers „ returned 



the I war being ended 

I The 



Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger. 

Comes dancing from the east. (See page 210, III, and page 228, III.) 
star (harbinger) ., comes + dancing 



bright 



the 



day's 



Now 



from east 



EXERCISE 188 

Analyze tJie following sentences : — 

1. The sun having risen, we began our journey. 

2. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

3. Dinner being over, the guests left the room. 

4. Looking upward, they beheld the cause of the trouble. 

5. He caught a pickerel, weighing seven pounds. 

6. They saw a small vessel, approaching the shore. 

7. All last night we watched the beacons. 

Blazing on the hills afar. 

8. An uprooted tree came drifting along the current. 

9. Seeing the multitude, he went up into a mountain. 

10. I heard the sound of little feet pattering outside of the door. 

Example IV. — It is useless to deny the fact. 
Oral Analysis 

1. This is a simple declarative sentence. 

2. The grammatical subject is //, which stands for the logical 
subject, to deny the fact ; the predicate, is useless. 

3. The logical subject is the infinitive phrase, to deny the fact, 
placed after the verb. 



THE. SIMPLE SENTENCE 235 

4. The predicate consists of tlie verb is, completed by tiie 
adjective useless. 

Written Analysis 

Simple Declarative Sentence 

|- to deny | fact 

I [^ 

It I 



is + useless 



Study also the following examples : — 

I. To hesitate is to fail. 

To hesitate ,. is + to fail. 



2. We expect to go. ,,, ^ , ^ 

^ * We 11 expect | to go. 



3. We are anxious to learn the result. 

We 11 are + anxious 



to learn | result 

I the 

4. A sower went forth to sow. ' 

sower .. went 



EXERCISE 189 
Analyze the following sentences : — ■ 

1. The best course is to confess the fault. 

2. It is a noble thing to reward evil with good. 

3. It is easy to decide the matter. 

4. Strive to be usefully employed. 

5. The officers came to inspect the works. 

6. It would be absurd to make another attempt. 

7. His efforts to find the treasure were hopeless. 

8. To bear is to conquer our fate. 

9. We hope to please you. 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

When a sentence contains compound or complex elements 
(see pages 223-224), such structure may be mdicated in writ- 
ten analysis as follows : — 

I. Slowly and smoothly went the ship. 

ship II went 



the I Slowly 

[/ a:nd 
\ sm|oothly 
2. Point thy tongue on the anvil of truth. 

X |. Point I tongue 



on anvil thy 



the 
EXERCISE 190 

Analyze the folloiving sentences : — 

1. It is never too late to give up our prejudices. 

2. Every man is a missionary for good or for evil. 

3. We are equally served by receiving and by imparting. 

4. It is the glory of a man to pass by an offence. 

5. A city without mocking-birds is only half Southern. 

6. The dove found no rest for the sole of her foot. 

7. This new story was a tale of life in Italy. 

CHAPTER LXXXIi 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 

A complex sentence is a sentence consisting of one principal 
clause and of one or more subordinate clauses ; as, — 

He who would search for pearls must dive below. 
The principal clause expresses the leading or principal 
thought of a sentence, but it does not express the complete 
thought. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 237 

The subordinate clause performs the office of a noun, an 
adjective, or an adverb, and is usually introduced by a con- 
junction or by a relative pronoun. 



I. NOUN CLAUSES 

A clause that performs the office of a noun is a noun clause. 
A noun clause may be used — 

(i) As the subject of a verb; as, — 

T/iaf you have wro7iged jne doth appear in this. 

(2) As a predicate nominative ; as, — 

The result was that the treaty was signed. 

(3) As the object of a transitive verb ; as, — 

He knows who ivrote the letter. 

(4) As the logical subject, defining a foregoing introduc- 
tory or grammatical subject; as, — 

It was a fortunate thing that we met him. 

(5) As the object of a preposition ; as, — 

The leader encouraged his men by what he said and by what 
he did. 

Noun clauses are introduced by the conjunctions t/iat 
and zvhethcr, and by the words hoio, whoi, icho, what, etc. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The conjunction tJuxt is often omitted when the noun 
clause follows the principal verb ; as, — 

I hope \jhat\ he will succeed. 

EXERCISE 191 

In the following sentettces, point out the noun clauses used 
as subjects : — - 

1. What it cost is of shght importance. 

2. "Know thyself" is a comprehensive maxim. 

3. What was said was misunderstood. 

4. When he will arrive is not yet known. 

5. That he should succeed is not surprising. 

6. Whoever looks may find the spot. 

7. That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 

8. How he made his escape is a mystery. 

9. What is done cannot be undone. 

10. Whoever comes will be welcome. 

11. What we achieve depends less on the amount of time we 
•possess, than on the use we make of our time. 

EXERCISE 192 

In the folloiving sentences, find the noun clauses used as 
predicate nominatives, and tell to wJtat each refers : — 

1. Children are what the mothers are. 

2. Be what nature intended you for, and you will succeed. 

3. The result was that the troops were defeated. 

4. Things are not what they seem. 

5. Our hope is that the plan will be accepted. 

6. The fact is that he is dissatisfied with the work. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 239 

7. The great and decisive test of genius is that it calls forth 
power in the souls of others. 

8. His only chance of escape was that he should go overboard 
in the night. 

EXERCISE 193 

In the folloiving sentences, point out the noun clauses used 
as objects, and tell of what they ai'e objects : — 

1. No man can lose what he never had. 

2. I know not what course others may take. 

3. What we do not understand, we do not possess. 

4. I learned that he was a universal favorite in the village. 

5. He declared that he was the sole survivor. 

6. See that you can untie what you tie. 

7. We do not know how the matter will be decided. 

8. I did not understand what was said. 

9. His whole mind was occupied by what he had heard. 

10. He could describe with great vividness, brevity, and force, 
what had happened in the past, what actually existed, or what the 
future promised. 

11. No one knows who sent the message. 

12. He declared that he was the sole survivor. 

13. What we seek, we shall find. 

14. Nobody could expect that we should be satisfied with these 
arrangements. 

EXERCISE 194 

In the follotving sentences, point out the noun clauses nscd 
as logical subjects : — 

1. It is good for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth. 

2. It has been truly said that he who sets one great truth 
afloat in the world serves his generation. 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. It is only by degrees that the great body of mankind can 
be led into new practices. 

4. It is seldom that we learn how great a man is until he dies. 

5. It was with extreme difficulty that he made his way towards 
the light. 

6. It is not enough to do the right thing, but we must do it 
in the right way, and at the right time. 

7. It is no easy matter to discover the exact spot where a 
sunken vessel lies. 

8. It would be tedious to detail minutely the rest of this story. 

II. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 

A clause that performs the office of an adjective is an 
adjective clause; as, — 

Sweet are the thoughts that savor of content. 
I remember, I remember 

The house where I was born. 

Adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pro- 
nouns wJio, which, that, and by the adverbs when, where, 
wJience, etc. 

EXERCISE 195 

Point out the adjective clauses in the following sentences, 
and tell what each modifies : — 

1. He that is giddy thinks the world turns round. 

2. In the evening we reached a village where I had deter- 
mined to pass the night. 

3. It was the time when lilies blow. 

4. Here is a barrier that cannot be passed. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 24 1 

5. I had a dream which was not all a dream. 

6. He serves all who dares be true. 

7. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 

8. One by one we miss the voices which we loved so well to 
hear. 

III. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 

A clause that performs the office of an adverb is an 
adverbial clause. 

An adverbial clause may denote — 

(i) Time, introduced by after, before, since, till, zvhen, 
while ; as, — 

Let us live while we live. 

(2) Place, introduced by where, whence, whither; as, — 

I shall remain where I atn. 

(3) Manner, introduced by as; as, — ■ 

He acts as no wise man would act, 

(4) Degree, introduced by tJian, as; as, — 

My days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle \is\ 
Enough is as good as a feast [z>] . 

(5) Cause or reason, introduced by because, for, since, as, 
that ; as, — 

Freely we serve, because we freely love. 
Since you desire it, I will remain. 

(6) Purpose, introduced by tJiat, lest; as, — 

Open the door that they may enter. 
Take heed lest ye fall. 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(7) Result or consequence, introduced by so that, that ^ 
as, — 

A storm arose, so that we could not leave the harbor. 
What has he done, that he should be dismissed? 

(8) Condition, introduced by if, tmless, except, but; as, — 

I will go if you are ready. 

The house will be sold unless the money is paid. 
Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 
It never rains but it pours. 

(9) Concession, introduced by though, although ; as, — 

Though he works hard, he does not succeed. 
Although he spoke, he said nothing. 



EXERCISE 196 

Point out the adverbial clauses of tiine, and tell what 
each modifies : — 

1. As the last sentence fell from the lips of the reader, a 
loud shout went up. 

2. While she was yet speaking, the sun rose in all its splendor. 

3. She was a phantom of delight 

When first she gleamed upon my sight. 

4. When his host had left the room, Dolph remained for some 
time lost in thought. 

5. The sea-birds screamed as they wheeled around. 

6. The sun had set before the conflict ended. 

7. Write to us as soon as you reach your destination. 

8. Fear not, while acting justly. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 243 

9. I have not visited the city since you were here. 

10. Small service is true service while it lasts. 

11. Days brightly came and calmly went, 
"While yet he was our guest. 

EXERCISE 197 

Point out the adverbial clauses of place, and tell what 
each modifies: — 

1. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 

2. Whither I go, ye cannot come. 

3. Where thoughts kindle, words spontaneously flow. 

4. The clouds rolled away to the east, where they lay piled in 
feathery masses, tinted with the last rosy rays of the sun. 

5. Where the heart is well guarded, temptations cannot enter. 

6. Cover the thousands that sleep far away ; 

Sleep where their friends cannot find them to-day. 

EXERCISE 198 

Point out the adverbial clauses of manner, and tell what 
each modifies : — 

1. As the tree falls, so it must lie. 

2. He died as he lived. 

3. Not as the conqueror comes, 
They, the true-hearted, came. 

4. Speak as you think. 

5. Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. 

6. We all do fade as a leaf. 

7. It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven. 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE 199 

Find the adverbial clauses of degree, and tell zv/iat each 

modifies : — 

1. Corruption wins not more than honesty. 

2. No sooner did this idea enter his head, than it carried con- 
viction with it. 

3. The nearer the dawn, the darker the night. 

4. The boy ran so fast that I could not overtake liim. 

5. The result was better than I expected. 

6. So far as my own observation goes, the farther one penetrates 
the sombre solitudes of the woods, the more seldom does one hear 
the voice of any singing bird. 

7. The more time he loses, the poorer he considers himself. 

8. The line is so long that it will reach the bottom. 

EXERCISE 200 

Point out the adverbial clauses of cause or reason^ and 

tell how they are joined to the principal clauses : — 

1. We love him because he first loved us. 

2. Since they are here, we must receive them. 

3. Freely we serve, because we freely love. 

4. They deserved respect ; for they were good men as well as 
brave. 

5. Since you are acquainted with the facts, you can judge for 
yourself. 

6. As he persisted in refusing help, I left him alone. 

7. Our bugles sang truce ; for the night-cloud had lowered. 

8. As our proposal was rejected, we have nothing further to say. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 245 

EXERCISE 201 
Point oiLt the adverbial clauses of purpose and of result, 

and tell what each 7nodifies : — 

1. We sow that we may reap. 

2. Beware lest you fall, 

3. He labored earnestly that abuses might be reformed. 

4. I repeated the order that there might be no mistake. 

5. Let my people go, that they may serve me. 

6. Seek to be so useful, that the world will miss you when away. 

7. The day was so still that carts could be heard rumbling a 
mile away. 

8. Love not sleep lest thou come to poverty. 

EXERCISE 202 
Point out the adverbial clauses of condition, and tell hozv 
they are joined to the principal clauses : — 

1. Speak clearly if you speak at all; 
Carve every word before you let it fall. 

2. The bill will not become a law, unless the Governor signs it. 

3. If he had feared difficulties, he would not have died an 
acknowledged leader of men. 

4. Had you not helped me, I should have failed. 

5. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to 
retire from the contest. 

6. If it bear the test, it will be accepted. 

7. If I had not been acquainted with the facts, this would 
have led me into a great error. 

8. Had he been absent, the motion would have been carried. 

9. This is strange if it be true. 

10. If we fail, it can be no worse for us. 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE 203 
Point out the adverbial clauses of concession^ and tell 

what each modifies : — 

1. Though it was morning, the sun did not shine. 

2. His knowledge, though not always accurate, was of immense 
extent. 

3. The good which men do is not lost, though it is often dis- 
regarded. 

4. He remained in school, though he was not able to work. 

5. Although I had so many interruptions, I completed the 
work in time. 

6. Though the position of affairs has changed, there is still 
danger to be apprehended. 

7. Though he were present, it would make no difference. 

8. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

IV. ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 
To analyze a complex sentence — 

(i) Tell the kind of sentence. 

(2) Name the subject and the predicate of the sentence. 

(3) Tell what the subject consists of. 

(4) Tell what the predicate consists of. 

(5) Analyze the subordinate clause or clauses. 

Example I. — That man is formed for social life is 
acknowledged by all. 

Oral Analysis 

1. This is a complex declarative sentence. 

2. The subject is the noun clause, that man is formed fot 
social life ; the predicate, is acknowledged by all. 



THE COMPLEX SExNTENCE 247 

3. The predicate consists of the verb is acknowledged, modified 
by the adverbial phrase by all. 

4. The subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction that 

5. The subject of the subordinate clause is the noun man; the 
predicate, is fo?'med for social life. 

6. The predicate of the clause consists of the verb is foi-med, 
modified by the adverbial phrase for social life. 

Written Analysis — Complex Declarative Sentence 
That 



man „ is 



for life 

social 



11 is acknowledged 



Study carefully the following examples of complex sen 
tences, and analyze each orally : — 

I. The fact that he was present is sufficient, 
that 



/ he || was ] + present \ 
fact V ' / is + sufficient 



2. He could describe with great vividness, brevity, and force, what had hap 
pened in the past, what actually existed, or what the future promised. 

what II had happened 





/ 

/ what ,, 


; 1 in past 


could describe | 


X 1 the 
exi;sted 




vividness 
/ X 1 great 
with / br!evity 


\ 

\ future 

the 1 


; 1 actually 
or 
1 pr'omised | what 




\^ for'ce 





248 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



3. It is certain that the plant will die. 
that 
/ plant ., will I die 



4. Our lunch, which we ate on the mountain, w-as moistened only by the fog. 
lunch „ was moistened 



we ., ate I which 



by fog 
I the 
only 



on mountam 

I the 

5. Walden is the book by which Thoreau is best known. 
Walden „ is + book 



Thoreau ., is known 



best 

by which 



the 



6. I have just returned from the Coliseum, whose ruins are so marvellously 
beautiful by moonlight. 

I I, have returned 
just 
from Coliseum 



ruins .. are + beautiful 



whose by moonlight marvellously 



7. The people believed in him because he was honest and true, 
people .. believed 



The 



in him | 
because 



honest 



he 11 was ] + 



/' 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 



249 



8. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, 
As the swift seasons roll ! 



O my soul 



Build I mansions 



I thee 
seasons ,, roll 



swift 
the 



stately 
i more 



9. Some murmur when their sky is clear. 



Some |, murmur 



sky ,. is + clear 
their when 



10. The water in this stream was as cold as ice. 

water . was + cold 



The in stream 



I this 



11. The water was so transparent that we could easily see the bottom of the pond> 

w-ater ,. was + transparent 
Th7]~" \]o 

that 

we ,, could ; see | bottom 

easily I the of pond 

the 

12. Corruption wins not more than honesty. 

Corruption .. wins 



honesty ,, X 



not more 



than 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

13. The nearer she approached the shrub, the more attractive it looked, 
it M hooked + attractive 



the 



she 11 approached | shrub 
nearer the 



EXERCISE 204 

Analyze the sentences in the follozving exereises : — 

1 . As we approached the house, we heard the sound of music. 

2. Such a fortnight in the woods as I have been hghtly sketching, 
will bring to him who rightly uses it a rich return. 

3. If we seek to acquire the style of another, we renounce the 
individual style which we might have acquired. 

4. " Good speed ! " cried the watch, as the gate-bolts undrew. 

5. So thick were the fluttering snowflakes, that even the trees 
were hidden by them the greater part of the time. 

6. I now found myself among noble avenues of oaks and elms, 
whose vast size bespoke the growth of centuries. 

7. Nothing is so dangerous as pride. 

8. We are happy now because God wills it. — Lowell. 

9. A great black cloud had been gathering in the sky for some 
time past, although it had not yet overspread the sun. 

10. Here I sit among my descendants, in my old arm-chair, and 
immemorial corner, while the firelight throws an appropriate glory 
romid my venerable frame. — Hawthorne. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 25 1 

11. He who sets a great example is great.— Victor Hugo. 

12. I saw from the beach, when the morning was shining, 
A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on.— Moore. 

13. The song that moves a Nation's heart 
Is in itself a deed. — Tennyson. 

14. As I crossed the bridge over the Avon on my return, I 
paused to contemplate the distant church in which the poet lies 
buried. — Irving. 

15. We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are 
created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with cer- 
tain unalienable rights ; that among these are Hfe, liberty, and the 
pursuit of happiness. 

16. We can almost fancy that we are visiting him [Milton] in 
his small lodging; that we see him sitting at the old organ beneath 
the faded green hangings ; that we can catch the quick twinkle 
of his eyes, roUing in vain to find the day ; that we are reading 
in the lines of his noble countenance the proud and mournful 
history of his glory and his affliction. — M-acaulay. 

17. When the woodpecker is searching for food, or laying siege 
to some hidden grub, the sound of his hammer is dead or muffled, 
and is heard but a few yards. It is only upon dry, seasoned 
timber, freed of its bark, that he beats his reveille to spring and 
woos his mate.— John Burroughs. 

18. We are nearer heaven when we listen to the birds than 
when we quarrel with our fellow-men. — Henry Van Dyke. 

19. And the night shall be filled with music. 

And the cares, that infest the day. 
Shall fold their tents, like the Arabs. 

And as silently steal away. — Longfellow. 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER LXXXIII 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 

A compound sentence is a sentence made up of two or more 
independent members; as, — 

The walls are high, and the shores are steep. 

Each member of a compound sentence, by itself, forms a 
complete sentence, which may be simple or complex; as, — 

The Mayor was dumb and the Council stood 
As if they were changed into blocks of wood. 

1. The Mayor was dumb. (Simple sentence.) 

2. The Council stood as if they were changed into blocks of 
wood. (Complex sentence.) 

The connective between the members may be omitted ; 
as, ** The night is chill, the cloud is gray ;" but the relation 
between the members should be stated in the analysis. 

To analyze a conipojmd sentence — 

(i) Tell the kind of sentence. 

(2) Name the different members, and tell how they are 
connected. 

(3) Analyze in order the different members of the sentence. 

Example. — The merchants shut up their warehouses, 
and the laboring men stood idle about the wharves. 

Oral Analysis 

I. This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two 
simple members connected by the copulative conjunction and. 



THE COMPOUND SEiNTENCE 253 

2. The subject of the first member is the merchants ; the predi- 
cate, shii-t up their warehouses. The subject consists of the noun 
merchants, modified by the adjective the. The predicate consists 
of the verb shut, modified by the adverb up, and completed by the 
object warehouses. The object is modified by the possessive pro- 
noun their. 

3. The subject of the second member is the laboring men ; the 
predicate, stood idle about the wharves. The subject consists of the 
noun men, with the adjectives the and laboring, of which laboring 
modifies men, and the modifies laboring men. The predicate con- 
sists of the verb stood, completed by the adjective idle, and modified 
by the adverbial phrase about the wharves. 

Written Analysis 
Compound Declarative Sentence 

w- 



The i ,' P^P ^^^ 

and 
men ,, ' stood -f- idle 



laboring 



the 



I about the whar 



Study carefully the following sentences, and analyze each 
orally : — 

I. Love is sunshine, hate is shadow, 
Life is checkered shade and sunshine. 

Love ,. is + sunshine 



hate 11 is 



Life „ is 



checkered [V su|nshine 



254 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



2. There was a sound of revelry by night, 
And Belgium's capital had gathered then 
Her beauty and her chivalry, and bright 
The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. 
There 



sound 


f rev 

-II- 


was 


by night 




lii^ 


elry \ 
And 


beauty 
/ ' 1 her 


capital 
Belgium's 


had 1 gathered | 
1 then 
and 

shone + bright 


/ and 




\ chivalry 


lamps 


j her 


The j 




o'er 


women 




/ ; 1 fair 
/ and 








\. men 



EXERCISE 205 Mirave 

Ajialyce the sentences in the following exercises : — 

1. Every day is a little life; and our whole life is but a day 
repeated. 

2. The harvest truly is plenteous, but the laborers are few. 

3. They toil not, neither do they spin. 

4. It is one thing to be well informed ; it is another to be wise. 

5. The ravine was full of sand now, but it had once been full 
of water. 

6. He touched his harp, and nations heard, entranced. 

7. The moon is up, and yet it is not night. 

8. They had played together in infancy ; they had worked to- 
gether in manhood ; they were now tottering about, and gossiping 
away the evening of Ufe ; and in a short time they will probably be 
buried together in the neighboring churchyard. — Irving. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 255 

9. Now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast. — Cowper. 

10. Lay down the axe; fling by the spade; 
Leave in its track the toiUng plough. — Bryant. 

11. But what chiefly characterized the colonists of Merry Mount 
was their veneration for the Maypole. It has made their true his- 
tory a poet's tale. Spring decked the hallowed emblem with young 
blossoms and fresh green boughs ; Summer brought roses of the 
deepest blush, and the perfected fohage of the forest; Autumn 
enriched it with that red and yellow gorgeousness which converts 
each wild-wood leaf into a painted flower ; and Winter silvered it 
with sleet, and hung it round with icicles, till it flashed in the cold 
sunshine, itself a frozen sunbeam. — Hawthorne. 

CHAPTER LXXXIV 

SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 

L The Arrow and the Song 

I shot an arrow into the air, 
It fell to earth, I knew not where ; 
For, so swiftly it flew, the sight 
Could not follow it in its flight. 
I breathed a song into the air. 
It fell to earth, I knew not where ; 
For who has sight so keen and strong 
That it can follow the flight of song ? 
Long, long afterward, in an oak 
I found the arrow, still unbroke; 
And the song, from beginning to end, 
I found again in the heart of a friend. 

— Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



II. Rip Van Winkle 

The great error in Rip's composition was an insuperable aversion 
to all kinds of profitable labor. It could not be from the want 
of assiduity or perseverance ; for he would sit on a wet rock, with 
a rod as long and heavy as a Tartar's lance, and fish all day with- 
out a murmur, even though he should not be encouraged by a 
single nibble. He would carry a fowling-piece on his shoulder 
for hours together, trudging through woods and swamps, and up 
hill and down dale, to shoot a few squirrels or wild pigeons. He 
would never refuse to assist a neighbor, even in the roughest toil, 
and was a foremost man at all country frolics for husking Indian 
corn or building stone fences. The women of the village, too, 
used to employ him to run their errands, and to do such Httle 
odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do for them. 
In a word. Rip was ready to attend to anybody's business but 
his own ; but as to doing family duty, and keeping his farm in 
order, he found it impossible. 

In fact, he declared it was of no use to work on his farm ; it 
was the most pestilent little piece of ground in the whole country ; 
everything about it went wrong, and would go wrong in spite of 
him. His fences were continually falling to pieces ; his cow would 
either go astray, or get among the cabbages ; weeds were sure to 
grow quicker in his fields than anywhere else ; the rain always 
made a point of setting in just as he had some outdoor work to 
do ; so that though his patrimonial estate had dwindled away under 
his management, acre by acre, until there was little more left than 
a mere patch of Indian corn and potatoes, yet it was the worst- 
conditioned farm in the neighborhood. — Washington Irving. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 257 

III. The Poet's Song 

The rain had fallen, the Poet arose, 

He passed by tne town and out of the street, 
A light wind blew from the gates of the sun. 

And waves of shadow went over the wheat, 
And he sat him down in a lonely place, 

And chanted a melody loud and sweet, 
That made the wild-swan pause in her cloud, 

And the lark drop down at his feet. 

The swallow stopt as he hunted the bee, 

The snake slipt under a spray. 
The wild hawk stood with the down on his beak, 

And stared, with his foot on the prey, 
And the nightingale thought, " I have sung many songs, 

But never a one so gay, 
For he sings of what the world will be 

When the years have died away." — Alfred Tennyson. 

IV. Leaves 

The leaves, as we shall see immediately, are the feeders of the 
plant. Their own orderly habits of succession must not interfere 
with their main business of finding food. Where the sun and air 
are, the leaf must go, whether it be out of order or not. So, there- 
fore, in any group, the first consideration with the young leaves is 
much like that of young bees, how to keep out of each other's way, 
that every one may at once leave its neighbors as much free-air 
pasture as possible, and obtain a relative freedom for itself. This 
would be a quite simple matter, and produce other simply balanced 
forms, if each branch, with open air all round it, had nothing to 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

think of but reconcilement of interests among its own leaves. But 
every branch has others to meet or to cross, sharing with them, in 
various advantage, what shade, or sun, or rain is to be had. Hence 
every single leaf-cluster presents the general aspect of a little family, 
entirely at unity among themselves, but obliged to get their living 
by various shifts, concessions, and infringements of the family rules, 
in order not to invade the privileges of other people in their 
neighborhood. — John Ruskin. 

V. The Constitution 

What is the Constitution? It is the bond which binds together 
millions of brothers. What is its history? Who made it? mon- 
archs, crowned heads, lords, or emperors? No, it was none of 
these. The Constitution of the United States, the nearest approach 
of mortal to perfect political wisdom, was the work of men who 
purchased liberty with their blood, but who found that, without 
organization, freedom was not a blessing. They formed it, and the 
people, in their intelligence, adopted it. And what has been its 
history? Has it trodden down any man's rights? Has it circum- 
scribed the liberty of the press ? Has it stopped the mouth of any 
man? Has it held us up as objects of disgrace abroad? How much 
the reverse ! It has given us character abroad ; and when, with 
Washington at its head, it went forth to the world, this young coun- 
try at once became the most interesting and imposing in the circle 
of civilized nations. How is the Constitution of the United States 
regarded abroad? Why, as the last hope of liberty among men. 
Wherever you go, you find the United States held up as an example 
by the advocates of freedom. The mariner no more looks to his 
compass, or takes his departure by the sun, than does the lover of 
liberty abroad shape his course by reference to the Constitution of 
the United States — Daniel Webster. 



APPENDIX 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Languages that have come from the same original 
tongue are said to belong to the same family. The Eng- 
lish language is a member of the Aryan or Indo-European 
family of languages. There are two great divisions of 
the Indo-European family, an Eastern or Asiatic division, 
and a Western or European division. These include seven 
branches: Indian (Sanskrit, Hindustani, etc.); Iranian 
(Persian, etc.); Greek; ItaHc or Romanic (Latin, and the 
Romance tongues which have sprung from the Latin, such 
as Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese); Celtic (Welsh, 
Irish; and Gaelic); Slavonic (Russian, Bulgarian, Polish, 
Bohemian, etc.); and Teutonic or Germanic (Scandinavian, 
English, German, etc.). 

The principal divisions of the Teutonic or Germanic 
branch of the Indo-European family are : Scandinavian 
(Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish); High Ger- 
man, the language originally spoken by the people who 
dwelt in the highlands of Germany; Low German (Dutch, 
Flem.ish, and Anglo-Sa.xon or Enghsh), the language origi- 
nally spoken by the people who dwelt in the lowlands of 
259 



26o ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Germany, near the coast. The most important member 
of the Low-German division of the Teutonic group is 
English. 

The English language, in its earliest form, was intro- 
duced into Britain about the middle of the fifth century by 
the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, Low-German tribes from 
the northern part of Germany. These invaders gradually 
displaced the native population of Britain, and founded 
kingdoms of their own. They were known to the Britons 
as Saxons, but they called themselves " English " {Englisc), 
and the land they had won "England" {Ejiglaland, the 
land of the Angles). The language of these Teutonic 
settlers of Britain became in time the national tongue. 
This oldest form of our own language is commonly called 
Anglo-Saxon or Old English. 

The ancient Britons belonged to the Celtic race, and 
spoke the Celtic tongue. As a result of their intercourse 
with the Angles and Saxons, a few Celtic words came 
into our language. Among the words of Celtic origin 
that were adopted from the conquered Britons are the 
names of articles in common use at that time, such as 
basket, cradle, crock, mattock, and mop ; and some of the 
oldest names of rivers, hills, mountains, and towns ; as, 
Avon, Esk, Dee; Cheviot, Malvern, Ben Nevis ; Aberdeen, 
Liverpool, London. 

The Teutonic settlers in Britain also borrowed from the 
Britons a few Latin words left by the Romans, who had 
held Britain from 43 a.d. to 410 a.d. Among these words 
are strata {via strata), a paved way, and castra, a camp. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 261 

I'hey appear in modern English as street, Chester, Man- 
chester, Lancaster, Leicester. 

The introduction of Christianity among the Enghsh at 
the close of the sixth century brought with it the study of 
Latin, and led to increased communication between Eng- 
land and the other European nations. Hence a great 
number of Latin words, most of them relating to the 
church, passed into English ; as, altar, bishop, creed, 
church, clerk, deacon, priest, psalm, temple. Many words 
of this class had been borrowed by the Romans from 
Greek, but they came into our language through the Latin 
tongue. Owing to their extended trade, the English be- 
came acquainted at this time with many new things and 
products, and this brought them such words as crip, fork, 
lobster, palm, peach. 

Toward the close of the eighth century, Northmen or 
Danes, from the Scandinavian peninsula and from Den- 
mark, began to make incursions into England. After a 
time they began to settle there, and, finally, in the 
eleventh century, held for a time the English throne. 
Owing to this conquest, and to the consequent close com- 
mercial and literary intercourse with Denmark and the Low 
Dutch coast, some Norse or Scandinavian words were 
introduced into the English language. Among the number 
are many names of places ending in by (a town); as, 
Derby, Rugby, Whitby. Proper names ending in son are 
also of Norse origin; as, Johnson, Stephenson. 

While the Danes were making conquests in England, 
other Northmen settled in northern France, where they 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

were called Normans. Here, in the tenth century, they 
founded the duchy of Normandy, and gradually adopted 
the customs and language of the French people. In 
1066, the Normans, under William, Duke of Normandy, 
conquered England. 

After the Norman Conquest, French became the lan- 
guage of the English Court and of the higher classes. 
French was used in Parliament, in the courts of law, and 
even in the schools. But the great majority of the people 
continued to speak English. For a time the two lan- 
guages were spoken, side by side, but gradually the Nor- 
mans and the English became one people, and spoke one 
tongue — the English language. 

During the long period when the two races were becoming 
one, a vast body of Norman French words had found their 
way into English. This element of English is called a Latin 
element, as the French language, of which the Norman 
French is a form, is descended from the Latin tongue. 

Many different classes of words came into English through 
the Norman French. The Normans introduced feudalism 
and the chase into England; they also introduced new 
methods of warfare and their own system of law. Some 
of the words that came into the language as a result of this 
are homage, fealty, vassal, relating to feudalism ; brace, chase, 
forest, mews, connected with the chase ; arins, battle, captain, 
mail, vizor, pertaining to warfare ; attorney, court, judge, 
justice, plaintiff, sue, trespass, terms used in the law. 

Some of the church terms came to us through the Nor- 
mans ; as, ceremony, miracle, penance, procession, relic, tonsure. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 263 

A great number of English titles were introduced by the 
Normans ; as, count, cottntess, duke, empress, peer, mayor ; but 
king, queen, earl, lord, lady, and alderman, are old English 
words that were in use before the Norman Conquest. 

Certain refinements of life were introduced by the Nor- 
mans, and hence came such words as carpet, curtain, mirror, 
napkin, parlor, table. Norman French words, like beef, mut- 
ton, pork, veal, were introduced to designate the flesh of 
certain animals when used as food ; but the old English 
names, ox, sheep, swine, calf, are still used in speaking of 
the living animals. 

Besides the few Latin words that the Teutonic settlers 
adopted from the Britons, the Latin words that came into 
English through the introduction of Christianity into Britain. 
and the great body of Latin words that came into the lan- 
guage indirectly through Norman French, there are many 
others that found their way into the language at a later 
period. Owing to the revival of classical study in England, 
a great number of Latin words came into the language 
during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Many of 
these words appeared in the written or printed language, but 
never passed into general use. 

Many Greek words have also come into the language since 
the beginning of the sixteenth century. Most of our scientific 
terms are of Greek origin. 

The spread of English exploration and the growth of 
commerce between English-speaking people and people 
who speak other languages, has brought into English words 
from the Spanish, ItaUan, French, German, Dutch, Chinese, 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Russian, Persian, Arabic, and many other languages. Many 
of these words are the names of articles or customs peculiar 
to the country from which the words were borrowed ; as, 
Spanish: armada, cigar; Italian: balcony, lava, opera; French: 
bouquet, chagrin, p7Vgramine ; German : kindergarteji, meer- 
schaum, waltz, zinc; Dutch: skate, sloop, yacht ; Chinese: 
china, nankeen, tea ; Russian : Czar, drosky, steppe ; Persian : 
chess, shazvl, turban ; Arabic : algebra, coffee, gazelle. 

The English of the present day differs greatly from Anglo- 
Saxon or Old English. Anglo-Saxon was an inflected lan- 
guage. That is, the relation of words to each other was 
expressed, as in Latin and Greek, by the endings of the 
words. Nearly all of these grammatical endings or inflec- 
tions were gradually lost after the Danish and Norman Con- 
quests, and we now in most cases indicate the relations of 
words by their position in the sentence, or by distinct words, 
such as prepositions and auxiliary verbs. 

Modern English differs from Old English not only in its 
lack of inflections, but also in the character of its vocabulary. 
The language of our Teutonic ancestors was an unmixed 
speech. It contained no foreign elements. Modern English 
has in its vocabulary more words of foreign than of native 
origin. A large majority of these words are from Latin or 
Greek, many of which are scientific, philosophical, or tech- 
nical terms. About three-fourths of the words in common 
use are of Anglo-Saxon origin. 



II 



RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 
AND MARKS OF PUNCTUATION 

I. CAPITAL LETTERS 

1. The first word of every sentence should begin with 
a capital letter. 

2. A proper name should begin with a capital letter. 

3. Nouns or adjectives derived from proper names should 
usually begin with capital letters. 

4. The names of the months and of the days of the 
week should begin with capital letters. 

5. Titles of honor or respect and official titles should 
begin with capital letters, when they are applied to an 
individual or are uSed as part of a name ; as, — 

The President of the United States, the Governor of New York, 
the Mayor of Chicago, William the Conqueror, dear Sir. 
Queen Victoria, President Lincoln, General Grant. 

6. The name of a rehgious bod}', or of a political party, 
should begin with a capital letter ; as, — • 

Roman Catholic, Protestant, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, JMetho- 
dist. Baptist; Whig, Tory, Democrat, Republican, Conservative, 
Liberal. 

265 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

7. The important words in the title of a book, of a news- 
paper, or of an}^ other composition should begin with capi- 
tal letters ; as, — 

The Jungle Book, New York Evening Post, In the White Moun- 
tains. 

8. All names and titles of the Deity should begin with 
capital letters ; as, — 

Lord, God, Creator, Father, the Supreme Being. 

9. The pronoun / and the interjection O should be written 
or printed in capital letters ; as, — ■ 

O father ! I see a gleaming light. 

10. The first word of a direct quotation should begin 
with a capital letter ; as, — 

He replied, " Kindness wins friends." 

11. The first word of every line of poetry should begin 
with a capital letter. 

II. MARKS OF PUXCTUATIOX 
The Period 

1. A complete sentence, not interrogative or exclamatory, 
should be followed by a period. 

2. Every abbreviated word should be followed by a 
period ; as, — 

Mr- Mrs., Dr., Hon., Rev. 



MARKS OF PUNCTUATION 267 

The Interrogation Point 
An interrogative sentence should be followed by the in- 
terrogation point ; as, — 

What will be the result? 

The Exclamation Point 
An exclamatory word, phrase, or sentence should be fol- 
lowed by the exclamation point ; as, — 

Hark ! I hear footsteps. O noble judge ! What a wonderful 
gift he possesses ! 

The Comma 

1. The name of a person or thing addressed should be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or 
commas ; as, — 

Come with me, John. Ring, happy bells, across the snow. 

2. A series of words, phrases, or clauses in the same 
construction should be separated by commas ; as, — 

He was an honest, temperate, forgiving man. I come to bury 
Caesar, not to praise him. She knew how far she could go, and 
what she could do. 

Note. — Two words in the same construction, or two short phrases connected 
by and, or, or nor, should not be separated by the comma ; as, He was brave 
and patriotic. 

3. A transposed phrase or clause is usually separated 
from the rest of the sentence by a comma ; as, — 

In a very short time, they had passed the spot. If we fail, you 

will be disappointed. 

Note. — If the phrase is closely united with the sentence, the comma is not 
used; as, Beneath the window is a wooden bench. 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

4. An appositive word or phrase is usually separated 
from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas ; 

as, — 

Milton, the great English poet, was blind. 

But when the explanatory term combines closely with the 
word explained, the comma is omitted ; as, — 

The outlet of this lake is the river Nile. The emperor Augustus 
was a patron of the fine arts. 

5. Words, phrases, or clauses placed between closely 
related parts of a sentence should be separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas ; as, — 

It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world. 

6. A relative clause not restrictive should be separated 
from the remainder of the sentence by the comma ; as, — 

Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevolence. 

7. The comma is often used to indicate an omission of a 
word or words ; as, — 

Labor brings pleasure ; idleness, pain. 

8. A short quotation, informally introduced, should be 
separated from the preceding part of the sentence by a 
comma ; as, — 

Agassiz once said, " I have no time to waste in making money." 

9. The members of a compound sentence, when short 
and closely connected, should be separated by the comma; 
as, — 

He whistled shrill, and he was answered from the hill. 



MARKS OF PUNCTUATION 269 

The Semicolon 

1. When the members of a compound sentence are sub- 
divided by the comma, they are usually separated by the 
semicolon ; as, — - 

If I ever saw the creature, it was a long, long while ago ; and, 
to tell you the truth, I doubt whether I ever did see him. 

2. Short clauses, slightly connected in meaning and not 
joined by conjunctions, should be separated by the semi- 
colon; as, — 

The old men sit at their doors ; the gossip leans over her coun- 
ter ; the children shout and frolic in the streets. 

The Colon 

When a speech or quotation is formally introduced by 
thus, as follozvs, these zvords, or some similar expression, it 
should be preceded by a colon ; as, — 

Carlyle used these words : " Be true, if you would be believed." 

Marks of Parenthesis 

Marks of parenthesis are used to enclose words or ex- 
pressions which do not strictly belong to the sentence; 
as, — 

Nor did I fail (as is the custom of landed proprietors all about 
the world) to parade the poor fellow up and down over ray half a 
dozen acres. 



270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The Dash 

1. The dash is often used instead of marks of paren- 
thesis to enclose parenthetical expressions that are closely 
related to the whole sentence; as, — 

A room with seven doors — like the famous apartment in Wash- 
ington's headquarters at Newburgh — is an invitation to bewilder- 
ment. 

2. The dash is used to mark an abrupt change in thought 
or in the construction of a sentence ; as, — 

She happened to cast her eyes over a great, broad field of 
waving grain — and whom do you think she saw? 

Hast thou — but how shall I ask a question which must bring tears 
into so many eyes? 

Quotation Marks 

Every direct quotation should be enclosed by quotation 
marks. When the quotation is divided by other words, 
each part should be enclosed by quotation marks; as, — 

"Have you anything to tell me, little bird?" asked Ulysses. 

"Peep! "said the bird, "peep, peep, pe-weep ! " 

The Hyphen 

1. The hyphen is used to join the parts of a compound 
word ; as, — 

man-of-war twenty-three crab-apple 

2. To join the syllables of a word divided at the end 
of a line. 



Ill 



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 



@ At or to. 

A.B. or B.A. . . Bachelor of Arts. 

acct. Account. 

A.D. ... In the year of our Lord. 

Ala. ........ Alabama. 

A.M. (^Anie JMeridieni) Before noon. 
A.M. . . In the year of the world. 
A.M. or M.A. . . . Master of Arts 

Anon Anonymous. 

Ark Arkansas. 

Ariz Arizona Territory'. 

Aug August. 

Av. or Ave Avenue. 

B.C Before Christ. 

Bp Bishop. 

Cal. . California. 

Capt Captain. 

Co Company. 

Co County. 

C.O.D. . . . Collect on DeHvery. 

Col Colonel. 

CoU College. 

Colo, or Col Colorado. 

Conn Connecticut. 

Cor. Sec, Corresponding Secretary. 

Cr Credit. 

Cr Creditor. 

ct cent. 

D.C District of Columbia. 

D.D Doctor of Divinity. 

Dec December. 

Del Delaware. 

Del. {Delineavii), He or she drew it. 

do. (ditio) The same. 

Dr Debtor. 

Dr Doctor. 



E East. 

e.g. (^exempli gratia) . For example. 

Esq Esquire. 

etc. or &c., And others; and so forth. 

Ex Example. 

F. or Fahr., 

Fahrenheit (thermometer). 

Feb Februarv. 

Fla Florida. 

Fri Fridav. 

F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. 

Ga Georgia. 

Gen General. 

Gov Governor. 

Gov.-Gen. . . . Governor-General. 

Hon Honorable. 

Idaho Idaho. 

i.e. (^id est) That is, 

lU Illinois. 

Ind Indiana. 

Ind. T Indian Territorj-. 

inst., Instant — the present month. 

low^a or lo Iowa. 

Jan. January. 

Jr. or Jiin Junior. 

Kans. or Kan Kansas. 

Ky Kentucky. 

La Louisiana. 

L.I Long Island. 

Lieut Lieutenant. 

Lieut.-Col. . . Lieutenant-Colonel. 
Lieut.-Gen. . Lieutenant-General. 
Lieut. -Gov. . Lieutenant-Governor. 

LL.D Doctor of Laws. 

M. (^meridies) Noon. 

Maj.-Gea Major-GeneraL 



271 



2/2 



ENGLISH GRAALMAR 



Mass. 

M.C. 

M.D. 

Md. 

Me. 



. . . Massachusetts, 
. Member of Congress. 
. Doctor of Medicine. 

Maryland. 

Maine. 



Messrs. (^IMessieurs) . Gentlemen. 

Mich Michigan. 

Minn Minnesota. 

Miss Mississippi. 

Mile ^Mademoiselle. 

Mme Madame. 

Mo Missouri. 

Mon Monday. 

Mont Montana. 

M.P. . . . Member of Parliament. 

Mr Mister. 

Mrs Mistress. 

Ms Manuscript. 

Mss Manuscripts. 

Mt Mount. 

N North. 

N.A North America. 

N.B. ijiota bene) .... Note well. 

Nebr. or Neb Nebraska. 

Nev Nevada. 

N.C North Carolina. 

N. Dak North Dakota. 

N.H New Hampshire. 

N.J New Jersey. 

N. Mex New Mexico. 

No Number. 

Nov November. 

N.Y New York. 

Oct October. 

Ohio or O Ohio. 

Okla. T. . . . Oklahoma Territory. 

Or Oregon. 

p Page. 

Pa. or Penn. . . . Pennsylvania. 
per cent (^per centuiti) 

By the hundred. 
Ph.D. . . . Doctor of Philosophy. 
Ptnx. (^Pinxii) He or she painted it. 
P.M. (^post meridieiii) . Afternoon. 



Postmaster. 
Post-office. 
. . Pages. 
. President. 
. Professor. 



P.M. 

P.O. 

pp. 

Pres, 

Prof. 

Pro tern, (pro /e»ipore) 

For the time being, 
prox. (^proximo) . . . Next month. 
P.S. (pos/ scriptutii) . . . Postscript. 

Rev Reverend. 

R.I Rhode Island. 

R.R Railroad. 

Rt. Rev Right Reverend. 

S South. 

Sat Saturday. 

Sept September. 

Sr. or Sen . Senior. 

S.C South Carolina. 

S. Dak South Dakota. 

St Street. 

Sun Sunday. 

Supt Superintendent. 

Tenn Tennessee. 

Tex Texas. 

Thurs Thursday, 

Tues Tuesday. 

ult. {ultimo) .... Last month. 

U.S United States. 

U.S.A. . . . United States Army, 
U.S.A. . United States of America. 
U.S.M. . . . United States Mail, 
U.S.N. . . . United States Navy, 

Utah Utah, 

Va Virginia, 

viz. {videlicet) . . .To wit, namely, 

vs. {versus) Against, 

Vt Vermont, 

"W West, 

Wash Washington, 

"Wed Wednesday 

Wis Wisconsin, 

"W. Va ^Vest Virginia 

Wyo Wyoming 



INDEX 



Abbreviations, list of, 319-321. 

Absolute, nominative, 184. 

Abstract nouns, 31 ; formation of, 31. 

Acceptance, form of, 305. 

Active forms of verbs, 142. 

Active voice, 107. 

Address, nominative of, 185. 

Address, in a letter, 285 ; forms of, 285, 286. 

Adjectives, 12 ; agreement with noun, 201 ; 
appositive use, 200; attributive use, 200; 
choice of, 99 ; classes of, 85-87 ; compar- 
ison of, 93-97 ; construction of, 199-202 ; 
inflection for number, 96; not compared, 
95; parsing of, 97, 98; predicative use, 
200 ; review of, loi ; use of comparative 
and superlative forms of, 202 ; used for 
adverbs, 200. 

Adjective clauses, 240 ; uses of, 240. 

Adjective phrase, 169. 

Adjective pronouns, 64-66 ; classes of, 64, 
65 ; inflection of, 65. 

Adverbs, 16; classes of, 159-162; compar- 
ison of, 162; construction of, 212, 213; 
distinguished from adjectives, 165 ; pars- 
ing of, 163; position of, 212;, review of, 
166 ; same form as adjectives, 165. 

Adverbial clauses, 241 ; uses of, 241-246 ; 
of time, 241-242; of place, 241, 243; of 
manner, 241, 243; of degree, 241, 244; 
of cause or reason, 241, 244; of purpose, 
241, 245 ; of result or consequence, 242, 
245 ; of condition, 242, 245 ; of conces- 
sion, 242, 246. 

Adverbial conjunction, 161. 

Adverbial object, 191. 

Adverbial objective, 191. 

Adverbial phrase, 160. 169. 

Adversative conjunctions, 175. 

Advertisements, 300-302 ; for articles lost, 
300; for articles found, 300; for help, 



301 ; for situations, 302 ; forms of, 

300-302. 
Agreement, of adjective with noun, 201; 

of pronoun with antecedent, 193 ; of verb 

with subject, 203. 
Alternative conjunctions, 175. 
An or a, origin of, 88 ; uses of, 83, 89, 90. 
Analysis of sentences, 230-258; simple, 

230-236; complex, 246-251 ; compound, 

252-255- 
Antecedent of pronoun, 67 ; omission of, 75. 
Appendix, 307-321. 
Apposition, 183, 196. 
Appositive, 183. 
Appositive phrase, 228. 
Article, the, 88-92; definite, 88; indefinite, 

88 ; repetition or omission of, 90, 91 ; 

uses of, 88, 89. 
Auxiliaries of mode, 138. 
Auxiliary verbs, 119, 127-142; be, 133; can, 

139; do, 137; have, 130; may, 139; must, 

140; shall, 131; -will, 131. 

Be, as an auxiliary verb, 135 ; as an inde- 
pendent verb, 136; conjugation of, 133; 
derivation of, 133 ; uses of, 135-137. 

Bills, 296, 297 ; forms of, 296, 297. 

Body of a letter, 288. 

Business forms, 296-304. 

Business letters, forms of, 292, 294, 295. 

But, uses of, 71, 175, 218. 

Can, forms of, 139 ; uses of, 139. 

Capital letters, rules for, 313, 314. 

Case, 46; nominative, 46; possessive, 46 ; 

objective, 46. 
Causal conjunctions, 175. 
Choice of adjectives, 99. 
Cognate objective, 191. 
Clause, 27; adjective, 240; adverbial, 241; 



274 



INDEX 



dependent or subordinate, 28, 237; ex- 
planatory, 76; independent or principal, 
28, 236 ; noun, 237 ; relative, 76 ; restric- 
tive, 76. 

Collective noun, 30. 

Common gender, 42. 

Common noun, 30. 

Comparative degree, 93, 202. 

Comparison, 32, 93; degrees of, 93 ; double 
forms of, 95 ; forms of, 93 ; irregular, 94 ; 
of adjectives, 92 ; of adverbs, 162. 

Complement, 105. 

Complete predicate, 4. 

Complete subject, 4. 

Complex sentence, 225, 236-251; analysis 
of, 246-251 ; forms for analysis of, 246- 
250 ; structure of, 236-246. 

Composition, 259-306. 

Compound adjective, 86. 

Compound conjunction, 176. 

Compound modifiers, 224. 

Compound personal pronoun, 62, 63 ; de- 
clension of, 62; formation of, 62 ; use as 
reflexives, 63 ; use to express emphasis, 
62. 

Compound possessives, 39, 40. 

Compound prepositions, 172. 

Compound relative pronouns, 71, 72; for- 
mation of, 71. 

Compound sentence, 226, 252-255 ; analy- 
sis of, 252-255; forms for analysis of, 
252-254 ; structure of, 252. 

Conclusion, of letter, 282; forms of, 283. 

Conjugation, 32; of the verb, 142-146; 
active voice, 142-144 ; passive voice, 144, 
145; progressive form, 145, 146. 

Conjunctions, 20; classes of, 174; adver- 
sative, 175; alternative, 175 ; causal, 175; 
compound, 176; coordinating, 174 ; cop- 
ulative, 175 ; correlatives, 175 ; subor- 
dinating, 176; parsing of, 177; review 
of, 179. 

Conjunctive adverbs, 161. 

Construction, of nouns, 181 ; of pronouns, 
193; of adjectives, 199; of verbs, 203; 
of infinitives, 207; of participles, 210; of 
adverbs, 212; of prepositions, 213; of 
conjunctions, 217. 



', Coordinating conjunctions, 174. 
! Copula, 136. 

Copulative conjunctions, 175. 

Copulative verbs, 106. 

Correct use of verbs, 153-157. 

Correlatives, 175 ; use of, 217. 

Declarative sentence, i, 226. 

Declension, 32 ; of nouns, 47 ; of personal 
pronouns, 58, 59 ; of compound personal 
pronouns, 62; of relative pronouns, 71, 
72. 

Defective verb, 123. 

Definite article, 88. 

Degrees of comparison, 93; positive, 93; 
comparative, 93 ; superlative, 93. 

Demonstrative pronoun, 64. 

Dependent clause, 28, 237. 

Description, study of, 267, 272 ; reproduc- 
tion of, 268, 275; original, 26S. 

Descriptive adjective, 85. 

Direct object, 187, 197. 

Distributive pronouns, 64. 

Do, as an auxiliary verb, 137; as an inde- 
pendent verb, 138 ; uses of, 137-138. 

Double negative, 212. 

Eack other, 64. 
Elder, older, 95. 
Elements of a sentence, 222; principal, 

222; subordinate, 222; mdependent, 

223; simple, 224; compound, 224; 

complex, 224. 
English language, the, 307-312. 
Exercises in narration and description, 

261, 263, 266, 268, 270, 271, 272, 275. 
Exclamatory sentence, 2, 226. 
Expletive, 159. 

Farther , further , 95. 

Factitive verb, 190. 

Feminine gender, 42; of nouns, 42; of 

pronouns, 60. 
Foreign plurals, 41. 
Forms, of verbs, 123-127; of be, 133-135; 

of can, 139; o{ have, 129; o{ inay, 139; 

of shall, 131 ; of will, 131 ; active, 142; 

passive, 144- progressive, 145. 



INDEX 



275 



Future perfect tense, 119. 
Future tense, 118. 

Gender, 42; masculine, 42; feminine, 42; 

common, 42; neuter, 42; of nouns, 

42-45 ; of pronouns, 59, 60. 
Gerund, 113. 

Grammatical predicate, 4. 
Grammatical subject, 4. 

Have, as an auxiliary verb, 130 ; as an in- 
dependent verb, 130; forms of, 129. 
Heading, of a letter, 278 ; forms of, 279. 

Imperative mode, in. 

Imperative sentence, i, 226. 

Imperfect participle, 115. 

Impersonal subject, 60; object, 60. 

Indefinite article, 88. 

Indefinite pronouns, adjective, 65; rela- 
tive, 72. 

Independent clause, 28. 

Indicative mode, 109. 

Indirect object, 189, 197. 

Infinitive, the, 112; in -ing or participial, 
113, 116, 117; simple, 113; construction 
of, 207, 208; after the verbs, may, cart, 
etc., 207; as subject of verb, 207; as 
predicate nominative, 207; as object of 
a transitive verb, 207 ; as object of a 
preposition, 207 ; as adjective modifier, 
208 ; to express purpose, 208 ; used el- 
liptically or absolutely, 208 ; with noun 
or pronoun as object of verb, 208 ; with 
possessive modifier, 208 ; parsing of, 150. 

Infinitive m-mg, 113; distinguished from 
the present participle and the verbal 
noun, 117; uses of, 113, 207, 208. 

Infinitive phrase, 167. 

Inflection, 32; of nouns, 32-55; of pro- 
nouns, 58, 59, 71, 72. 

Interjections, 22, 180; parsing of, 180. 

Interrogative adjectives, 79, 80. 

Interrogative adverbs, 161. 

Interrogative pronouns, 78-81 ; use of, 79. 

Interrogative sentence, 2, 226. 

Intransitive verbs, 103 ; made intransitive, 
108. , 



Invitations, formal, forms of, 304. 
Irregular verbs, 123 ; list of, 124-127. 
//, special uses of, 60. 

Last, latest, use of, 95. 

Latter, later, use of, 95. 

Lay, lie, use of, 153. 

Learn, teach, use of, 157. 

Lesser, use of, 95. 

Letter-writing, orj^-^pb. 

Letter, a, the address in, 285 ; body of, 288 ; 

conclusion of, 282; forms of, 277, 292, 

294, 295; heading of, 278; parts of, 276; 

salutation in, 281 ; superscription of, 290. 
Limiting adjectives, 85 ; demonstrative, 

85 ; numeral, 86. 
Logical predicate, 4. 
Logical subject, 4. 

Marks of punctuation, rules for, 314-318. 

Masculine gender, 42; of nouns, 42; of 
pronouns, 59, 60. 

Masculine pronoun, special use of, 59, 60. 

May, forms of, 139; uses of, 139, 155. 

May, can, uses of, 155. 

Modal adverb, 160. 

Mode, 109; imperative, in; indicative, 
109; subjunctive, no. 

Models for the analysis of sentences, oral 
230, 231, 232, 246, 248, 252; written, 231, 
232, 233, 247, 248, 249, 250, 253, 254. 

Modifiers, 4, 224; simple, 224; complex, 
224; compound, 224; of the subject, 
227, 228 ; of the predicate, 229, £30. 

Must, uses of, 140. 

My, mine, etc., 60, 61. 

Narration and description, exercises in, 
261, 263, 266, 268, 270, 271, 272, 275. 

Neuter gender, 42; of nouns, 42; of pro- 
nouns, 60. 

Nominative absolute, 184, 196. 

Nominative case, 46, 181-185. 

Nominative of address, 185, 196. 

.Notices of public meetings, forms ol, 302. 

Noun clauses, 237; uses of, 237-240; as 
subject, 237; as predicate nominative, 
237 ; as object of a transitive verb, 237 ; 



276 



INDEX 



as logical subject, 237; as object of a 

preposition, 237. 
Noun phrase, 169. 
Nouns, 9; case of, 45-51; classes of, 29- 

32; constructions ot, 181-193; gender 

of, 42-45 ; inflection of, 32-55 ; number 

of, 32-41 ; parsing of, 54 ; review of, 55-57. 
Number of nouns, 32-41 ; of pronouns, 

58, 59, 62; of the adjectives this and 

that, 96 ; of verbs, 121. 
Numeral adjectives, 86; cardinal, 86; or- 

dmal, 86. 

Object, of preposition, 18, 188, 197 ; of 
verb, 46, 187, 189 ; adverbial, 191 ; direct, 
187, 197; mdirect, 189, 197. 

Objective case, 46, 187-192. 

Objective predicate, 190. 

Of, substitute for the possessive inflection, 
52; uses ot, 52. 

One another, use of, 64. 

Order of subject and predicate, in declara- 
tive sentences, 5 ; in imperative sen- 
tences, 6 ; in interrogative sentences, 7 ; 
in exclamatory sentences, 7. 

Ought, use of, 141. 

Outer, utter, uses of, 95. 

Paragraph, the, 259; single, 260, 261; re- 
lated, 262. 

Parsing, 53 ; of adjectives, 97 ; of adverbs, 
163 ; of conjunctions, 177 ; of infinitives, 
150; of interjections, 180; of nouns, 54; 
of participles, 151; of prepositions, 172; 
of pronouns, 81 ; of verbs, 147 ; selec- 
tions for, 220. 

Participial adjective, 85. 

Participial infinitive, 113. 

Participial phrase, 168. 

Participle, the, 115; present or imperfect, 
115; past or perfect, 115; constructions 
of, 210; used attributively, 210; used ap- 
positively, 210; used predicatively, 210; 
used absolutely, 210; parsmg of, 151. 

Parts of speech, 23 ; review of, 23-26. 

Passive forms of verbs, 144. 

Passive voice, 107, 135, 144, 

Past participle, 115. 



Past perfect tense, 119. 

Past tense, 118. 

Perfect participle, 115. 

Person, of pronouns, 57-59 ; of verbs, 121. 

Person and number of verbs, 121. 

Personal pronouns, 57-63; declension of, 
58, 59 ; double possessive of, 52 ; special 
uses of, 59-61. 

Phrases, 27; classes of, 167, 169, 224. 

Plural number, 33; of nouns, 32-41 ; irreg- 
ular, 36 ; two forms differing m meaning, 
38; of compounds, 39; of titles, 40; of 
figures, letters, and signs, 40; ot nouns 
from foreign languages, 41. 

Plural subjects, 203, 204. 

Positive degree, 93. 

Possession, indicated by of, 52. 

Possessive forms of nouns, 48, 50, 52. 

Possessive case, 46,48-53, 186; ol singular 
nouns, 48 ; of plural nouns, 48 ; of com- 
pound nouns, 50; of connected nouns, 
50; of phrases, 50; of nouns denoting 
joint possession, 50; of nouns denoting 
separate possession, 50; with certain 
words and phrases denoting a period of 
time, 52; with the name of a thing per- 
sonified, 52. 

Possessive, double, 52; forms, 7ny, mine, 
etc., 60, 61. 

Possessive modifier, 186, 196. 

Potential mode, 140. 

Predicate, 3 ; grammatical or simple, 4, 
222; logical or complete, 4. 

Predicate adjective, 200. 

Predicate nominative, 182, 196. 

Predicate noun, 182. 

Prepositions, 17, 171 ; after certain words. 
216; construction of, 213; discrimi- 
nated, 213; parsing of, 172; relations ex- 
pressed by, 171. 

Prepositional phrase, 167. 

Present or imperfect participle. 115. 

Present perfect tense, 119. 

Present tense, 118. 

Principal clause, 28, 236. 

Principal elements of a sentence, 222. 

Principal parts of a verb, 123. 

Progressive form, 135 ; of verbs, 145. 



INDEX 



77 



Pronouns, lo; antecedent of, 67; agree- 
ment with antecedent, 193 ; case relations 
of, 195; constructions of, 193-199; nom- 
inative and objective forms of, 197; 
parsing of, 81 ; review of, 84. 

Proper adjectives, 85. 

Proper noun, 29. 

Public meetings, notices of, 302. 

Punctuation, rules for, 314-318. 

Receipting bills, 296, 297. 

Receipts, 298, 299; forms of, 298, 299. 

Reciprocal pronouns, 64. 

Reflexive use of pronouns, 63. 

Regret, form of, 305. 

Regular verb, 123. 

Relative pronouns, 66-75 '• antecedent of, 
67, 75 ; agreement with antecedent, 72, 
193; declension of, 71, 72; compound, 
71, 72; indefinite, 72; omission of, 74, 
75 ; use of, 68-71. 

Relative clauses, 76-78; explanatory, 76; 
restrictive, 76. 

Review, of parts of speech, 23-26; of 
nouns, 55 ; of pronouns, 84 ; of adjec- 
tives, loi ; of verbs, 157 ; of adverbs, 
166 ; of conjunctions, 179. 

Rules for, capital letters, 313, 314; com- 
parison of adjectives, 92-94 ; marks of 
punctuation, 314-318; plural forms of 
nouns, 33-41 ; possessive forms of 
nouns, 48, 50; singular and plural forms 
of verbs, 203, 204. 

Salutation, in a letter, 281; forms of, 281. 

Selections, for analysis, 255-258 ; for pars- 
ing, 220-221 ; for study, 259, 260, 262, 
263, 267, 269, 270, 272. 

Sentences, i; classes of, i, 2, 225, 226; 
elements of, 222; structure of, 222, 225; 
use of, 226. 

Sequence of tenses, 206. 

S/ial/, forms of, 131; uses of, 131-133. 

Should, uses of, 132, 140. 

Simple adverb, 161. 

Simple infinitive, 113, 114; use of, 113; 
constructions of, 207, 208. 

Simple modifiers, 222. 



Simple predicate, 4, 222. 

Simple subject, 222. 

Simple sentence, 225, 227-236; subject of, 
227 ; modifiers of subject, 227, 228 ; pred- 
icate of, 228, 229; modifiers of predicate, 
229, 230 ; analysis of, 230-236 ; forms for 
analysis of, 230-233. 

Singular number, 33. 

Singular subjects, 203, 204. 

SU, set, use of, 154. 

Social forms, 304, 306. 

Stop, stay, use of, 156. 

Structure of the sentence, 222-226; simple, 
227-230 ; complex, 236-246 ; compound, 
252. 

Study of selections, 263, 267, 272. 

Subject, 3, 222; grammatical or simple, 4, 
222; logical or complete, 4; of a verb, 
14; of an infinitive, 208. 

Subject nominative, 181, 195. 

Subjunctive mode, no; uses of, no. 

Subordinate clause, 28, 237. 

Subordinate elements of a sentence, 222. 

Subordinating conjunctions, 176. 

Superlative degree, 93, 202. 

Superscription, of a letter, 290; forms of, 290. 

Syntax, 181-221. 

Telegraphic despatches, 303, 304. 

Tense, 118; formation of, 119; past, 118: 

past perfect, 119; present. 118; present 

perfect, 119; future, 118; future perfect, 

119. 
That, uses of, 70, 76 ; in restrictive clauses, 

70. 
The, as article, 88, 90; as adverb, 88, 220; 

origin of, 88. 
There, as an expletive, 159. 
Think, guess, expect, uses of, 155. 
Thou, special uses of, 59. 
To, sign of infinitive, 113. 
Topics for exercises in composition, 261, 

269, 271, 272. 
Transitive verb, 103. 

X'aried uses of words, 218-220. 

Verbal noun, 31. 

Verbs, 14, principal parts of, 123 , regular. 



2/8 



INDEX 



123; irregular, 123; defective, 123; re- 
dundant, 123; transitive, 103; intransi- 
tive, 103 ; of incomplete predication, 
105; auxiliary, 119, 127-142; subject of, 
14; object of, 46; complement of, 105; 
voice of, 107; mode of, 109; tense of, 
118; person and number of, 121; agree- 
ment with subject, 203 ; forms of, 123-127, 
129, 131, 133-135, 139; conjugation of, 
133-135, 142-146; list of irregular verbs, 
124-127; correct use of, 153-157; pars- 
ing of, 147 ; review of, 157. 



Voice, 107; active, 107; passive, 107. 

We, special uses of, 58. 

What, uses of, 70, 79, 80. 

Whether, uses of, 79, 175. 

Which, uses of, 69, 79, 80. 

Who, declension of, 71 ; uses of, 68, 79. 

Will, forms of, 131 ; uses of, 131-133. 

Would, uses of, 132, 141. 

Yes and no, 160. 
You use of, 59. 



AF 



APR 1-1902 



